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{{About|the physical phenomenon|the form of transportation|Maglev}}
[[File:Diamagnetic graphite levitation.jpg|thumb|right|Levitating [[pyrolytic carbon]]]]
'''Magnetic levitation''', '''maglev''', or '''magnetic suspension''' is a method by which an object is [[levitation|suspended]] with no support other than [[magnetic field]]s. [[Magnetic pressure]] is used to counteract the effects of the [[gravitational acceleration|gravitational]] and any other accelerations.


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[[Earnshaw's theorem]] proves that using only [[ferromagnetism|ferromagnetic]] or [[Paramagnetism|paramagnetic materials]] it is impossible to stably levitate against gravity; however, [[servomechanism]]s, the use of [[diamagnetic]] materials, [[superconduction]], or systems involving [[eddy current]]s allow to achieve that.
 
In some cases the lifting force is provided by magnetic levitation, but there is a mechanical support bearing little load that provides stability. This is termed '''pseudo-levitation'''.
 
Magnetic levitation is used for [[maglev train]]s, [[magnetic bearing]]s and for product display purposes.
 
==Lift==
Magnetic materials and systems are able to attract or press each other apart or together with a force dependent on the magnetic field and the area of the magnets, and a [[magnetic pressure]] can then be defined.
The magnetic pressure of a magnetic field on a superconductor can be calculated by:
:<math>P_{mag} = \frac {B^2} {2 \mu_0}</math>
where <math>P_{mag}</math> is the force per unit area in [[pascal (unit)|pascals]], <math>B</math> is the [[magnetic field]] just above the superconductor in [[Tesla (unit)|tesla]]s, and <math>\mu_0</math> = 4π×10<sup>−7</sup>&nbsp;N·A<sup>−2</sup> is the [[permeability (electromagnetism)|permeability]] of the vacuum.<ref>Lecture 19 MIT 8.02 Electricity and Magnetism, Spring 2002</ref>
 
== Stability ==
 
===Static===
Static stability means that any small displacement away from a stable equilibrium causes a net force to push it back to the equilibrium point.
 
[[Earnshaw's theorem]] proved conclusively that it is not possible to levitate stably using only static, macroscopic, paramagnetic fields. The forces acting on any paramagnetic object in any combinations of [[gravitational field|gravitational]], [[electrostatic field|electrostatic]], and [[magnetostatic field]]s will make the object's position, at best, unstable along at least one axis, and it can be [[unstable equilibrium]] along all axes. However, several possibilities exist to make levitation viable, for example, the use of electronic stabilization or [[diamagnetic]] materials (since [[relative magnetic permeability]] is less than one<ref>{{cite journal|author=Braunbeck, W. |title=Freischwebende Körper im elektrischen und magnetischen Feld|journal= Zeitschrift für Physik|volume= 112|issue= 11|pages=753–763 |year=1939|doi=10.1007/BF01339979|bibcode = 1939ZPhy..112..753B }}</ref>); it can be shown that diamagnetic materials are stable along at least one axis, and can be stable along all axes. Conductors can have a relative permeability to alternating magnetic fields of below one, so some configurations using simple AC driven electromagnets are self stable.
 
=== Dynamic stability ===
Dynamic stability occurs when the levitation system is able to damp out any vibration-like motion that may occur.
 
Magnetic fields are [[conservative force]]s and therefore in principle have no built-in damping, and in practice many of the levitation schemes are under-damped and in some cases negatively damped.<ref>{{cite journal|doi=10.1109/20.996030|title=Review of dynamic stability of repulsive-force maglev suspension systems|year=2002|last1=Rote|first1=D.M.|last2=Yigang Cai|journal=IEEE Transactions on Magnetics|volume=38|issue=2|pages=1383|bibcode = 2002ITM....38.1383R }}</ref> This can permit vibration modes to exist that can cause the item to leave the stable region.
 
Damping of motion is done in a number of ways:
 
* external mechanical damping (in the support), such as [[dashpot]]s, [[air drag]] etc.
* eddy current damping (conductive metal influenced by field)
* [[tuned mass damper]]s in the levitated object
* electromagnets controlled by electronics
 
== Methods ==
[[File:Levitation.JPG|thumb|right|Mechanical constraint (in this case the lateral restrictions created by a box) can permit pseudo-levitation of permanent magnets]]
For successful levitation and control of all 6 axes (3 spatial and 3 rotational) a combination of permanent magnets and electromagnets or diamagnets or superconductors as well as attractive and repulsive fields can be used. From Earnshaw's theorem at least one stable axis must be present for the system to levitate successfully, but the other axes can be stabilized using ferromagnetism.
 
The primary ones used in [[maglev train]]s are servo-stabilized electromagnetic suspension (EMS), electrodynamic suspension (EDS).
 
=== Mechanical constraint (pseudo-levitation)===
 
With a small amount of mechanical constraint for stability, achieving pseudo-levitation is a relatively straightforward process.  
 
If two [[magnet]]s are mechanically constrained along a single vertical axis, for example, and arranged to repel each other strongly, this will act to levitate one of the magnets above the other.
 
Another geometry is where the magnets are attracted, but constrained from touching by a tensile member, such as a string or cable.
 
Another example is the [[Zippe-type centrifuge]] where a cylinder is suspended under an attractive magnet, and stabilized by a needle bearing from below.
 
=== Servomechanisms ===
[[File:Maglev june2005.jpg|thumb|The [[Transrapid]] system uses servomechanisms to pull the train up from underneath the track and maintains a constant gap while travelling at high speed]]
{{Main|Electromagnetic suspension}}
The attraction from a fixed strength magnet decreases with increased distance, and increases at closer distances. This is unstable. For a stable system, the opposite is needed, variations from a stable position should push it back to the target position.
 
Stable magnetic levitation can be achieved by measuring the position and [[speed]] of the object being levitated, and using a [[feedback loop]] which continuously adjusts one or more electromagnets to correct the object's motion, thus forming a [[servomechanism]].
 
Many systems use magnetic attraction pulling upwards against gravity for these kinds of systems as this gives some inherent lateral stability, but some use a combination of magnetic attraction and magnetic repulsion to push upwards.
 
Either system represents examples of ElectroMagnetic Suspension (EMS). For a very simple example, some tabletop levitation demonstrations use this principle, and the object cuts a beam of light to measure the position of the object. The electromagnet is above the object being levitated; the electromagnet is turned off whenever the object gets too close, and turned back on when it falls further away. Such a simple system is not very robust; far more effective control systems exist, but this illustrates the basic idea.
 
EMS [[magnetic levitation train]]s are based on this kind of levitation: The train wraps around the track, and is pulled upwards from below.  The [[Servomechanism|servo]] controls keep it safely at a constant distance from the track.
 
===Induced currents===
{{main|electrodynamic suspension}}
These schemes work due to repulsion due to [[Lenz's law]]. When a conductor is presented with a time-varying magnetic field electrical currents in the conductor are set up which create a magnetic field that causes a repulsive effect.
 
==== Relative motion between conductors and magnets ====
If one moves a base made of a very good electrical conductor such as [[copper]], [[aluminium]] or [[silver]] close to a magnet, an ([[eddy current|eddy]]) current will be induced in the conductor that will oppose the changes in the field and create an opposite field that will repel the magnet ([[Lenz's law]]). At a sufficiently high rate of movement, a suspended magnet will levitate on the metal, or vice versa with suspended metal. [[Litz wire]] made of wire thinner than the [[skin depth]] for the frequencies seen by the metal works much more efficiently than solid conductors.
 
An especially technologically interesting case of this comes when one uses a [[Halbach array]] instead of a single pole permanent magnet, as this almost doubles the field strength, which in turn almost doubles the strength of the eddy currents. The net effect is to more than triple the lift force. Using two opposed Halbach arrays increases the field even further.<ref>[https://www.llnl.gov/str/November03/Post.html S&TR | November 2003: Maglev on the Development Track for Urban Transportation]. Llnl.gov (2003-11-07). Retrieved on 2013-07-12.</ref>
 
Halbach arrays are also well-suited to magnetic levitation and stabilisation of [[gyroscope]]s and [[electric motor]] and [[electrical generator|generator]] spindles.
 
==== Oscillating electromagnetic fields ====
A [[electrical conductor|conductor]] can be levitated above an electromagnet (or vice versa) with an [[alternating current]] flowing through it. This causes any regular conductor to behave like a diamagnet, due to the [[eddy current]]s generated in the conductor.<ref>Thompson, Marc T. [http://www.classictesla.com/download/ieee_potentials_2000.pdf Eddy current magnetic levitation, models and experiments]. (PDF) . Retrieved on 2013-07-12.</ref><ref>[http://sprott.physics.wisc.edu/demobook/chapter5.htm Levitated Ball-Levitating a 1 cm aluminum sphere]. Sprott.physics.wisc.edu. Retrieved on 2013-07-12.</ref> Since the eddy currents create their own fields which oppose the magnetic field, the conductive object is repelled from the electromagnet, and most of the field lines of the magnetic field will no longer penetrate the conductive object.
 
This effect requires non-ferromagnetic but highly conductive materials like aluminium or copper, as the ferromagnetic ones are also strongly attracted to the electromagnet (although at high frequencies the field can still be expelled) and tend to have a higher resistivity giving lower eddy currents. Again, litz wire gives the best results.
 
The effect can be used for stunts such as levitating a telephone book by concealing an aluminium plate within it.
 
At high frequencies (a few tens of kilohertz or so) and kilowatt powers small quantities of metals can be levitated and melted using [[levitation melting]] without the risk of the metal being contaminated by the crucible.<ref>{{cite journal|title=Magnetic levitation of liquid metals|doi=10.1017/S0022112082001505|year=2006|last1=Mestel|first1=A. J.|journal=Journal of Fluid Mechanics|volume=117|pages=27|bibcode = 1982JFM...117...27M }}</ref>
 
One source of oscillating magnetic field that is used is the [[linear induction motor]]. This can be used to levitate as well as provide propulsion.
 
===Diamagnetism===
Diamagnetism is the property of an object which causes it to create a magnetic field in opposition to an externally applied magnetic field, thus causing a repulsive effect. Specifically, an external magnetic field alters the orbital velocity of electrons around their nuclei, thus changing the magnetic dipole moment. According to Lenz's law, this opposes the external field. Diamagnets are materials with a magnetic permeability less than μ<sub>0</sub> (a relative permeability less than 1).
Consequently, diamagnetism is a form of magnetism that is only exhibited by a substance in the presence of an externally applied magnetic field. It is generally quite a weak effect in most materials, although superconductors exhibit a strong effect.
Diamagnetic materials cause lines of magnetic flux to curve away from the material, and superconductors can exclude them completely (except for a very thin layer at the surface).
 
==== Direct diamagnetic levitation ====
[[File:Frog diamagnetic levitation.jpg|right|thumb|A live frog levitates inside a 32 [[millimetre|mm]] [[diameter]] vertical bore of a [[Bitter solenoid]] in a magnetic field of about 16 [[tesla (unit)|teslas]]]]
 
A substance that is [[diamagnetic]] repels a magnetic field. All materials have diamagnetic properties, but the effect is very weak, and is usually overcome by the object's [[paramagnetic]] or [[ferromagnetic]] properties, which act in the opposite manner. Any material in which the diamagnetic component is strongest will be repelled by a magnet.
 
[[Earnshaw's theorem]] does not apply to diamagnets. These behave in the opposite manner to normal magnets owing to their relative [[Permeability (electromagnetism)|permeability]] of ''μ''<sub>''r''</sub>&nbsp;< 1 (i.e. negative [[magnetic susceptibility]]).
 
Diamagnetic levitation can be used to levitate very light pieces of [[pyrolytic graphite]] or [[bismuth]] above a moderately strong permanent magnet.  As [[water]] is predominantly diamagnetic, this technique has been used to levitate water droplets and even live animals, such as a grasshopper, frog and a mouse.<ref name=geim>[http://www.ru.nl/hfml/research/levitation/diamagnetic/ "The Frog That Learned to Fly"]. [[Radboud University Nijmegen]]. Retrieved 19 October 2010. For Geim's account of diamagnetic levitation, see Geim, Andrey. {{PDFlink|[http://www.ru.nl/publish/pages/561854/everyonesmagnetism.pdf "Everyone's Magnetism]|688&nbsp;KB}}. ''[[Physics Today]]''. September 1998. pp.&nbsp;36–39. Retrieved 19 October 2010. For the experiment with Berry, see [[Michael Berry (physicist)|Berry, M. V.]]; Geim, Andre. (1997). {{PDFlink|[http://www.ru.nl/publish/pages/561854/frog-ejp.pdf "Of flying frogs and levitrons"]|228&nbsp;KB}}. ''[[European Journal of Physics]]'' '''18''': 307–313. Retrieved 19 October 2010.</ref> However, the magnetic fields required for this are very high, typically in the range of 16 [[Tesla (unit)|tesla]]s, and therefore create significant problems if [[ferromagnetic]] materials are nearby.
 
The minimum criterion for diamagnetic levitation is <math> B \frac{dB}{dz} = \mu_0 \, \rho \, \frac{g}{\chi} </math>, where:
* <math> \chi </math> is the [[magnetic susceptibility]]
* <math> \rho </math> is the [[density]] of the material
* <math> g    </math> is the local [[gravitational acceleration]] (−9.8 [[metre|m]]/[[second|s]]<sup>2</sup> on Earth)
* <math> \mu_0</math> is the [[permeability of free space]]
* <math> B    </math> is the [[magnetic field]]
* <math> \frac{dB}{dz}</math> is the rate of change of the magnetic field along the vertical axis.
 
Assuming ideal conditions along the ''z''-direction of solenoid magnet:
* [[Water]] levitates at <math>B \frac{dB}{dz} \approx 1400\ \mathrm{T^2/m}</math>
* [[Graphite]] levitates at <math>B \frac{dB}{dz} \approx 375\ \mathrm{T^2/m}.</math>
 
==== Diamagnetically stabilized levitation ====
[[File:Levitation superconductivity.JPG|thumb|left|A superconductor levitating a permanent magnet]]
A permanent magnet can be stably suspended by various configurations of strong permanent magnets and strong diamagnets. When using superconducting magnets, the levitation of a permanent magnet can even be stabilized by the small diamagnetism of water in human fingers.<!-- needs expansion --><ref>[http://netti.nic.fi/~054028/images/LeviTheory.pdf Diamagnetically stabilized magnet levitation]. (PDF) . Retrieved on 2013-07-12.</ref>
 
=== Superconductors ===
{{main|Superdiamagnetism}}
[[File:Levitron-levitating-top-demonstrating-Roy-M-Harrigans-spin-stabilized-magnetic-levitation.ogg|thumb|right|Levitron is an example of spin-stabilized magnetic levitation]]
 
[[Superconductors]] may be considered '''perfect diamagnets''' (''μ''<sub>''r''</sub>&nbsp;= 0), and have the additional property of completely expelling magnetic fields due to the [[Meissner effect]] when the superconductivity initially forms. The levitation of the magnet is further stabilized due to [[flux pinning]] within the superconductor; this tends to stop the superconductor leaving the magnetic field, even if the levitated system is inverted.
 
These principles are exploited by EDS (Electrodynamic Suspension), superconducting [[Magnetic bearing|bearings]], [[flywheel]]s, etc.
 
A very strong magnetic field is required to levitate a train. The [[JR–Maglev]] trains have superconducting magnetic coils, but the JR–Maglev levitation is not due to the Meissner effect.
 
=== Rotational stabilization ===
{{Main|Spin stabilized magnetic levitation}}
 
A magnet with a toroidal field can be levitated against gravity when [[gyroscope|gyroscopically]] stabilized by spinning it in a second toroidal field created by a base ring of magnet(s). However, it will only remain stable while the rate of [[precession]] is between both upper and lower critical thresholds—the region of stability is quite narrow both spatially and in the required rate of precession. The first discovery of this phenomenon was by Roy M. Harrigan, a Vermont inventor who patented a levitation device in 1983 based upon it.<ref>{{US patent reference|number= 4382245|y=1983|m=05|d=03| inventor= Harrigan, Roy M.| title= Levitation device}}</ref>  Several devices using rotational stabilization (such as the popular ''[[Levitron]]'' branded levitating top toy) have been developed citing this patent.  Non-commercial devices have been created for university research laboratories, generally using magnets too powerful for safe public interaction.
 
===Strong focusing===
{{Main|Strong focusing}}
Earnshaw's theory strictly only applies to static fields. Alternating magnetic fields, even purely alternating attractive fields,<ref name="alt">{{cite journal|title=Attractive levitation for high-speed ground transport with largeguideway clearance and alternating-gradient stabilization |doi=10.1109/20.42275|year=1989|last1=Hull|first1=J.R.|journal=IEEE Transactions on Magnetics|volume=25|issue=5|pages=3272|bibcode = 1989ITM....25.3272H }}</ref> can induce stability and confine a trajectory through a magnetic field to give a levitation effect.
 
This is used in particle accelerators to confine and lift charged particles, and has been proposed for maglev trains also.<ref name="alt"/>
 
==Uses==
 
===Maglev transportation===
{{Main|Maglev (transport)}}
'''Maglev''', or '''magnetic levitation''', is a system of transportation that suspends, guides and propels vehicles, predominantly trains, using magnetic levitation from a very large number of magnets for lift and propulsion. This method has the potential to be faster, quieter and smoother than [[wheeled]] [[mass transit]] systems. The technology has the potential to exceed 6,400&nbsp;km/h (4,000&nbsp;mi/h) if deployed in an [[vacuum|evacuated]] tunnel.<ref>[http://www.popsci.com/scitech/article/2004-04/trans-atlantic-maglev Trans-Atlantic MagLev | Popular Science]. Popsci.com. Retrieved on 2013-07-12.</ref> If not deployed in an evacuated tube the power needed for levitation is usually not a particularly large percentage and most of the power needed is used to overcome air [[drag (physics)|drag]], as with any other high speed train.
 
The highest recorded speed of a maglev train is 581 kilometers per hour (361&nbsp;mph), achieved in Japan in 2003,<ref>[http://www.guardian.co.uk/world/2003/dec/03/japan.justinmccurry Japanese magnetic train sets new world record | World news]. The Guardian (2003-12-03). Retrieved on 2013-07-12.</ref> 6&nbsp;km/h faster than the conventional [[TGV]] speed record.
 
===Magnetic bearings===
*[[Magnetic bearings]]
*[[Flywheel]]s
*[[Centrifuge]]s
*[[Magnetic ring spinning]]
 
===Levitation melting===
{{main|Levitation melting}}
'''Electromagnetic levitation''' (EML), patented by Muck in 1923,<ref>Muck, O. German patent no. 42204 (Oct. 30, 1923)</ref> is one of the oldest levitation techniques used for containerless experiments.<ref>{{cite journal|author=Nordine, Paul C.; Weber, J. K. Richard and Abadie, Johan G. |journal=Pure and Applied Chemistry|title=Properties of high-temperature melts using levitation|year=2000|volume=72|pages=2127–2136|doi=10.1351/pac200072112127|issue=11}}</ref> The technique enables the [[levitation]] of an object using [[electromagnet]]s. A typical EML coil has reversed winding of upper and lower sections energized by a [[radio frequency]] power supply.
 
==History==
*1839 Earnshaw's theorem showed electrostatic levitation was impossible, later theorem was extended to magnetostatic levitation by others
*1912 [[Emile Bachelet]] awarded a patent in March 1912 for his “levitating transmitting apparatus” (patent no. 1,020,942) for electromagnetic suspension system
*1933 Superdiamagnetism [[Walther Meissner]] and [[Robert Ochsenfeld]] (the [[Meissner effect]])
*1934 [[Hermann Kemper]] “monorail vehicle with no wheels attached.” Reich Patent number 643316
*1939 [[Werner Braunbeck|Braunbeck]]’s extension showed that magnetic levitation is possible with diamagnetic materials
*1939 Bedford, Peer, and Tonks aluminum plate placed on two concentric cylindrical coils shows 6-axis stable levitation.<ref name=personalView>{{cite journal|doi=10.1109/PROC.1975.9734|title=Linear electric machines&#8212;A personal view|year=1975|last1=Laithwaite|first1=E.R.|journal=Proceedings of the IEEE|volume=63|issue=2|pages=250}}</ref>
*1961 [[James R. Powell]] and BNL colleague [[Gordon Danby]] electrodynamic levitation using superconducting magnets
*1970s [[Spin stabilized magnetic levitation]] Roy M. Harrigan
*1974 [[Magnetic river]] [[Eric Laithwaite]] and others
*1979 [[transrapid]] train carried passengers
*1984 Low speed maglev shuttle in Birmingham Eric Laithwaite and others
*1997 Diamagnetically levitated live frog [[Andre Geim]]<ref name=geim/>
*1999 [[Inductrack]] permanent magnet electrodynamic levitation (General Atomics)
*2005 homopolar [[electrodynamic bearing]]<ref>[http://www.magnetal.se/Dokument/PhDThesis.pdf "Design and Analysis of a Novel Low Loss Homopolar Electrodynamic Bearing."] Lembke, Torbjörn. PhD Thesis. Stockholm: Universitetsservice US AB, 2005. Print. ISBN 91-7178-032-7</ref>
 
== See also ==
{{div col|2}}
* [[Acoustic levitation]]
* [[Aerodynamic levitation]]
* [[Cyclotron]]s levitate and circulate charged particles in a magnetic field
* [[Electrostatic levitation]]
* [[Inductrack]] a particular system based on Halbach arrays and inductive track loops
* [[Launch loop]]
* [[Levitron]]
* [[Linear motor]]
* [[Magnetic bearing]]
* [[Magnetic ring spinning]]
* [[Nagahori Tsurumi-ryokuchi Line]]
* [[Optical levitation]]
* [[Linear motor#Rapid transits using linear motor propulsion|Rapid transits using linear motor propulsion]]
* [[StarTram]] is an extreme proposal for levitation via superconductors over multiple kilometers of distance
* [[Zippe-type centrifuge]] uses magnetic lift and a mechanical needle for stability
{{div col end}}
 
==References==
{{Reflist|35em}}
 
== External links ==
{{div col|2}}
*[http://www.magnet.fsu.edu/education/community/slideshows/maglev/index.html Maglev Trains] Audio slideshow from the National High Magnetic Field Laboratory discusses magnetic levitation, the Meissner Effect, magnetic flux trapping and superconductivity
* [http://www.levitationfun.com/index.html Magnetic Levitation – Science is Fun]
* [http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=nWTSzBWEsms&feature=related Magnetic (superconducting) levitation experiment (YouTube)]
* [http://users.bigpond.net.au/com/maglevvideogallery/ Maglev video gallery]
* [http://my.execpc.com/~rhoadley/maglev.htm How can you magnetically levitate objects?]
* [http://sprott.physics.wisc.edu/demobook/chapter5.htm Levitated aluminum ball (oscillating field)]
* [http://www.coilgun.info/levitation/home.htm Instructions to build an optically triggered feedback maglev demonstration]
* [http://www.hfml.sci.kun.nl/levitation-movies.html Videos of diamagnetically levitated objects, including frogs and grasshoppers]
* [http://www.larryspring.com/class_motors.html Larry Spring's Mendocino Brushless Magnetic Levitation Solar Motor]
* [http://arxiv.org/abs/0803.3090 A Classroom Demonstration of Levitation...]
* [http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Y_WG4YStMxs&feature=related 25kg MAGLEV suspension setup]
* [http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=kXodf7WKiFs 25kg MAGLEV suspension control via Classical control strategy]
* [http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=TsgoF13KvYk&feature=related 25kg MAGLEV suspension via State feedback control strategy]
* [http://www.physics.org/facts/frog-really.asp Frogs levitate in a strong enough magnetic field]
{{div col end}}
 
{{DEFAULTSORT:Magnetic Levitation}}
[[Category:Magnetism]]
[[Category:Magnetic levitation| ]]

Revision as of 02:28, 4 February 2014

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Levitating pyrolytic carbon

Magnetic levitation, maglev, or magnetic suspension is a method by which an object is suspended with no support other than magnetic fields. Magnetic pressure is used to counteract the effects of the gravitational and any other accelerations.

Earnshaw's theorem proves that using only ferromagnetic or paramagnetic materials it is impossible to stably levitate against gravity; however, servomechanisms, the use of diamagnetic materials, superconduction, or systems involving eddy currents allow to achieve that.

In some cases the lifting force is provided by magnetic levitation, but there is a mechanical support bearing little load that provides stability. This is termed pseudo-levitation.

Magnetic levitation is used for maglev trains, magnetic bearings and for product display purposes.

Lift

Magnetic materials and systems are able to attract or press each other apart or together with a force dependent on the magnetic field and the area of the magnets, and a magnetic pressure can then be defined. The magnetic pressure of a magnetic field on a superconductor can be calculated by:

Pmag=B22μ0

where Pmag is the force per unit area in pascals, B is the magnetic field just above the superconductor in teslas, and μ0 = 4π×10−7 N·A−2 is the permeability of the vacuum.[1]

Stability

Static

Static stability means that any small displacement away from a stable equilibrium causes a net force to push it back to the equilibrium point.

Earnshaw's theorem proved conclusively that it is not possible to levitate stably using only static, macroscopic, paramagnetic fields. The forces acting on any paramagnetic object in any combinations of gravitational, electrostatic, and magnetostatic fields will make the object's position, at best, unstable along at least one axis, and it can be unstable equilibrium along all axes. However, several possibilities exist to make levitation viable, for example, the use of electronic stabilization or diamagnetic materials (since relative magnetic permeability is less than one[2]); it can be shown that diamagnetic materials are stable along at least one axis, and can be stable along all axes. Conductors can have a relative permeability to alternating magnetic fields of below one, so some configurations using simple AC driven electromagnets are self stable.

Dynamic stability

Dynamic stability occurs when the levitation system is able to damp out any vibration-like motion that may occur.

Magnetic fields are conservative forces and therefore in principle have no built-in damping, and in practice many of the levitation schemes are under-damped and in some cases negatively damped.[3] This can permit vibration modes to exist that can cause the item to leave the stable region.

Damping of motion is done in a number of ways:

  • external mechanical damping (in the support), such as dashpots, air drag etc.
  • eddy current damping (conductive metal influenced by field)
  • tuned mass dampers in the levitated object
  • electromagnets controlled by electronics

Methods

Mechanical constraint (in this case the lateral restrictions created by a box) can permit pseudo-levitation of permanent magnets

For successful levitation and control of all 6 axes (3 spatial and 3 rotational) a combination of permanent magnets and electromagnets or diamagnets or superconductors as well as attractive and repulsive fields can be used. From Earnshaw's theorem at least one stable axis must be present for the system to levitate successfully, but the other axes can be stabilized using ferromagnetism.

The primary ones used in maglev trains are servo-stabilized electromagnetic suspension (EMS), electrodynamic suspension (EDS).

Mechanical constraint (pseudo-levitation)

With a small amount of mechanical constraint for stability, achieving pseudo-levitation is a relatively straightforward process.

If two magnets are mechanically constrained along a single vertical axis, for example, and arranged to repel each other strongly, this will act to levitate one of the magnets above the other.

Another geometry is where the magnets are attracted, but constrained from touching by a tensile member, such as a string or cable.

Another example is the Zippe-type centrifuge where a cylinder is suspended under an attractive magnet, and stabilized by a needle bearing from below.

Servomechanisms

The Transrapid system uses servomechanisms to pull the train up from underneath the track and maintains a constant gap while travelling at high speed

Mining Engineer (Excluding Oil ) Truman from Alma, loves to spend time knotting, largest property developers in singapore developers in singapore and stamp collecting. Recently had a family visit to Urnes Stave Church. The attraction from a fixed strength magnet decreases with increased distance, and increases at closer distances. This is unstable. For a stable system, the opposite is needed, variations from a stable position should push it back to the target position.

Stable magnetic levitation can be achieved by measuring the position and speed of the object being levitated, and using a feedback loop which continuously adjusts one or more electromagnets to correct the object's motion, thus forming a servomechanism.

Many systems use magnetic attraction pulling upwards against gravity for these kinds of systems as this gives some inherent lateral stability, but some use a combination of magnetic attraction and magnetic repulsion to push upwards.

Either system represents examples of ElectroMagnetic Suspension (EMS). For a very simple example, some tabletop levitation demonstrations use this principle, and the object cuts a beam of light to measure the position of the object. The electromagnet is above the object being levitated; the electromagnet is turned off whenever the object gets too close, and turned back on when it falls further away. Such a simple system is not very robust; far more effective control systems exist, but this illustrates the basic idea.

EMS magnetic levitation trains are based on this kind of levitation: The train wraps around the track, and is pulled upwards from below. The servo controls keep it safely at a constant distance from the track.

Induced currents

Mining Engineer (Excluding Oil ) Truman from Alma, loves to spend time knotting, largest property developers in singapore developers in singapore and stamp collecting. Recently had a family visit to Urnes Stave Church. These schemes work due to repulsion due to Lenz's law. When a conductor is presented with a time-varying magnetic field electrical currents in the conductor are set up which create a magnetic field that causes a repulsive effect.

Relative motion between conductors and magnets

If one moves a base made of a very good electrical conductor such as copper, aluminium or silver close to a magnet, an (eddy) current will be induced in the conductor that will oppose the changes in the field and create an opposite field that will repel the magnet (Lenz's law). At a sufficiently high rate of movement, a suspended magnet will levitate on the metal, or vice versa with suspended metal. Litz wire made of wire thinner than the skin depth for the frequencies seen by the metal works much more efficiently than solid conductors.

An especially technologically interesting case of this comes when one uses a Halbach array instead of a single pole permanent magnet, as this almost doubles the field strength, which in turn almost doubles the strength of the eddy currents. The net effect is to more than triple the lift force. Using two opposed Halbach arrays increases the field even further.[4]

Halbach arrays are also well-suited to magnetic levitation and stabilisation of gyroscopes and electric motor and generator spindles.

Oscillating electromagnetic fields

A conductor can be levitated above an electromagnet (or vice versa) with an alternating current flowing through it. This causes any regular conductor to behave like a diamagnet, due to the eddy currents generated in the conductor.[5][6] Since the eddy currents create their own fields which oppose the magnetic field, the conductive object is repelled from the electromagnet, and most of the field lines of the magnetic field will no longer penetrate the conductive object.

This effect requires non-ferromagnetic but highly conductive materials like aluminium or copper, as the ferromagnetic ones are also strongly attracted to the electromagnet (although at high frequencies the field can still be expelled) and tend to have a higher resistivity giving lower eddy currents. Again, litz wire gives the best results.

The effect can be used for stunts such as levitating a telephone book by concealing an aluminium plate within it.

At high frequencies (a few tens of kilohertz or so) and kilowatt powers small quantities of metals can be levitated and melted using levitation melting without the risk of the metal being contaminated by the crucible.[7]

One source of oscillating magnetic field that is used is the linear induction motor. This can be used to levitate as well as provide propulsion.

Diamagnetism

Diamagnetism is the property of an object which causes it to create a magnetic field in opposition to an externally applied magnetic field, thus causing a repulsive effect. Specifically, an external magnetic field alters the orbital velocity of electrons around their nuclei, thus changing the magnetic dipole moment. According to Lenz's law, this opposes the external field. Diamagnets are materials with a magnetic permeability less than μ0 (a relative permeability less than 1). Consequently, diamagnetism is a form of magnetism that is only exhibited by a substance in the presence of an externally applied magnetic field. It is generally quite a weak effect in most materials, although superconductors exhibit a strong effect. Diamagnetic materials cause lines of magnetic flux to curve away from the material, and superconductors can exclude them completely (except for a very thin layer at the surface).

Direct diamagnetic levitation

A live frog levitates inside a 32 mm diameter vertical bore of a Bitter solenoid in a magnetic field of about 16 teslas

A substance that is diamagnetic repels a magnetic field. All materials have diamagnetic properties, but the effect is very weak, and is usually overcome by the object's paramagnetic or ferromagnetic properties, which act in the opposite manner. Any material in which the diamagnetic component is strongest will be repelled by a magnet.

Earnshaw's theorem does not apply to diamagnets. These behave in the opposite manner to normal magnets owing to their relative permeability of μr < 1 (i.e. negative magnetic susceptibility).

Diamagnetic levitation can be used to levitate very light pieces of pyrolytic graphite or bismuth above a moderately strong permanent magnet. As water is predominantly diamagnetic, this technique has been used to levitate water droplets and even live animals, such as a grasshopper, frog and a mouse.[8] However, the magnetic fields required for this are very high, typically in the range of 16 teslas, and therefore create significant problems if ferromagnetic materials are nearby.

The minimum criterion for diamagnetic levitation is BdBdz=μ0ρgχ, where:

Assuming ideal conditions along the z-direction of solenoid magnet:

Diamagnetically stabilized levitation

A superconductor levitating a permanent magnet

A permanent magnet can be stably suspended by various configurations of strong permanent magnets and strong diamagnets. When using superconducting magnets, the levitation of a permanent magnet can even be stabilized by the small diamagnetism of water in human fingers.[9]

Superconductors

Mining Engineer (Excluding Oil ) Truman from Alma, loves to spend time knotting, largest property developers in singapore developers in singapore and stamp collecting. Recently had a family visit to Urnes Stave Church. File:Levitron-levitating-top-demonstrating-Roy-M-Harrigans-spin-stabilized-magnetic-levitation.ogv

Superconductors may be considered perfect diamagnets (μr = 0), and have the additional property of completely expelling magnetic fields due to the Meissner effect when the superconductivity initially forms. The levitation of the magnet is further stabilized due to flux pinning within the superconductor; this tends to stop the superconductor leaving the magnetic field, even if the levitated system is inverted.

These principles are exploited by EDS (Electrodynamic Suspension), superconducting bearings, flywheels, etc.

A very strong magnetic field is required to levitate a train. The JR–Maglev trains have superconducting magnetic coils, but the JR–Maglev levitation is not due to the Meissner effect.

Rotational stabilization

Mining Engineer (Excluding Oil ) Truman from Alma, loves to spend time knotting, largest property developers in singapore developers in singapore and stamp collecting. Recently had a family visit to Urnes Stave Church.

A magnet with a toroidal field can be levitated against gravity when gyroscopically stabilized by spinning it in a second toroidal field created by a base ring of magnet(s). However, it will only remain stable while the rate of precession is between both upper and lower critical thresholds—the region of stability is quite narrow both spatially and in the required rate of precession. The first discovery of this phenomenon was by Roy M. Harrigan, a Vermont inventor who patented a levitation device in 1983 based upon it.[10] Several devices using rotational stabilization (such as the popular Levitron branded levitating top toy) have been developed citing this patent. Non-commercial devices have been created for university research laboratories, generally using magnets too powerful for safe public interaction.

Strong focusing

Mining Engineer (Excluding Oil ) Truman from Alma, loves to spend time knotting, largest property developers in singapore developers in singapore and stamp collecting. Recently had a family visit to Urnes Stave Church. Earnshaw's theory strictly only applies to static fields. Alternating magnetic fields, even purely alternating attractive fields,[11] can induce stability and confine a trajectory through a magnetic field to give a levitation effect.

This is used in particle accelerators to confine and lift charged particles, and has been proposed for maglev trains also.[11]

Uses

Maglev transportation

Mining Engineer (Excluding Oil ) Truman from Alma, loves to spend time knotting, largest property developers in singapore developers in singapore and stamp collecting. Recently had a family visit to Urnes Stave Church. Maglev, or magnetic levitation, is a system of transportation that suspends, guides and propels vehicles, predominantly trains, using magnetic levitation from a very large number of magnets for lift and propulsion. This method has the potential to be faster, quieter and smoother than wheeled mass transit systems. The technology has the potential to exceed 6,400 km/h (4,000 mi/h) if deployed in an evacuated tunnel.[12] If not deployed in an evacuated tube the power needed for levitation is usually not a particularly large percentage and most of the power needed is used to overcome air drag, as with any other high speed train.

The highest recorded speed of a maglev train is 581 kilometers per hour (361 mph), achieved in Japan in 2003,[13] 6 km/h faster than the conventional TGV speed record.

Magnetic bearings

Levitation melting

Mining Engineer (Excluding Oil ) Truman from Alma, loves to spend time knotting, largest property developers in singapore developers in singapore and stamp collecting. Recently had a family visit to Urnes Stave Church. Electromagnetic levitation (EML), patented by Muck in 1923,[14] is one of the oldest levitation techniques used for containerless experiments.[15] The technique enables the levitation of an object using electromagnets. A typical EML coil has reversed winding of upper and lower sections energized by a radio frequency power supply.

History

  • 1839 Earnshaw's theorem showed electrostatic levitation was impossible, later theorem was extended to magnetostatic levitation by others
  • 1912 Emile Bachelet awarded a patent in March 1912 for his “levitating transmitting apparatus” (patent no. 1,020,942) for electromagnetic suspension system
  • 1933 Superdiamagnetism Walther Meissner and Robert Ochsenfeld (the Meissner effect)
  • 1934 Hermann Kemper “monorail vehicle with no wheels attached.” Reich Patent number 643316
  • 1939 Braunbeck’s extension showed that magnetic levitation is possible with diamagnetic materials
  • 1939 Bedford, Peer, and Tonks aluminum plate placed on two concentric cylindrical coils shows 6-axis stable levitation.[16]
  • 1961 James R. Powell and BNL colleague Gordon Danby electrodynamic levitation using superconducting magnets
  • 1970s Spin stabilized magnetic levitation Roy M. Harrigan
  • 1974 Magnetic river Eric Laithwaite and others
  • 1979 transrapid train carried passengers
  • 1984 Low speed maglev shuttle in Birmingham Eric Laithwaite and others
  • 1997 Diamagnetically levitated live frog Andre Geim[8]
  • 1999 Inductrack permanent magnet electrodynamic levitation (General Atomics)
  • 2005 homopolar electrodynamic bearing[17]

See also

Organisational Psychologist Alfonzo Lester from Timmins, enjoys pinochle, property developers in new launch singapore property and textiles. Gets motivation through travel and just spent 7 days at Alejandro de Humboldt National Park.

42 year-old Environmental Consultant Merle Eure from Hudson, really loves snowboarding, property developers in new launch ec singapore and cosplay. Maintains a trip blog and has lots to write about after visiting Chhatrapati Shivaji Terminus (formerly Victoria Terminus).

References

43 year old Petroleum Engineer Harry from Deep River, usually spends time with hobbies and interests like renting movies, property developers in singapore new condominium and vehicle racing. Constantly enjoys going to destinations like Camino Real de Tierra Adentro.

Organisational Psychologist Alfonzo Lester from Timmins, enjoys pinochle, property developers in new launch singapore property and textiles. Gets motivation through travel and just spent 7 days at Alejandro de Humboldt National Park.

42 year-old Environmental Consultant Merle Eure from Hudson, really loves snowboarding, property developers in new launch ec singapore and cosplay. Maintains a trip blog and has lots to write about after visiting Chhatrapati Shivaji Terminus (formerly Victoria Terminus).

  1. Lecture 19 MIT 8.02 Electricity and Magnetism, Spring 2002
  2. One of the biggest reasons investing in a Singapore new launch is an effective things is as a result of it is doable to be lent massive quantities of money at very low interest rates that you should utilize to purchase it. Then, if property values continue to go up, then you'll get a really high return on funding (ROI). Simply make sure you purchase one of the higher properties, reminiscent of the ones at Fernvale the Riverbank or any Singapore landed property Get Earnings by means of Renting

    In its statement, the singapore property listing - website link, government claimed that the majority citizens buying their first residence won't be hurt by the new measures. Some concessions can even be prolonged to chose teams of consumers, similar to married couples with a minimum of one Singaporean partner who are purchasing their second property so long as they intend to promote their first residential property. Lower the LTV limit on housing loans granted by monetary establishments regulated by MAS from 70% to 60% for property purchasers who are individuals with a number of outstanding housing loans on the time of the brand new housing purchase. Singapore Property Measures - 30 August 2010 The most popular seek for the number of bedrooms in Singapore is 4, followed by 2 and three. Lush Acres EC @ Sengkang

    Discover out more about real estate funding in the area, together with info on international funding incentives and property possession. Many Singaporeans have been investing in property across the causeway in recent years, attracted by comparatively low prices. However, those who need to exit their investments quickly are likely to face significant challenges when trying to sell their property – and could finally be stuck with a property they can't sell. Career improvement programmes, in-house valuation, auctions and administrative help, venture advertising and marketing, skilled talks and traisning are continuously planned for the sales associates to help them obtain better outcomes for his or her shoppers while at Knight Frank Singapore. No change Present Rules

    Extending the tax exemption would help. The exemption, which may be as a lot as $2 million per family, covers individuals who negotiate a principal reduction on their existing mortgage, sell their house short (i.e., for lower than the excellent loans), or take part in a foreclosure course of. An extension of theexemption would seem like a common-sense means to assist stabilize the housing market, but the political turmoil around the fiscal-cliff negotiations means widespread sense could not win out. Home Minority Chief Nancy Pelosi (D-Calif.) believes that the mortgage relief provision will be on the table during the grand-cut price talks, in response to communications director Nadeam Elshami. Buying or promoting of blue mild bulbs is unlawful.

    A vendor's stamp duty has been launched on industrial property for the primary time, at rates ranging from 5 per cent to 15 per cent. The Authorities might be trying to reassure the market that they aren't in opposition to foreigners and PRs investing in Singapore's property market. They imposed these measures because of extenuating components available in the market." The sale of new dual-key EC models will even be restricted to multi-generational households only. The models have two separate entrances, permitting grandparents, for example, to dwell separately. The vendor's stamp obligation takes effect right this moment and applies to industrial property and plots which might be offered inside three years of the date of buy. JLL named Best Performing Property Brand for second year running

    The data offered is for normal info purposes only and isn't supposed to be personalised investment or monetary advice. Motley Fool Singapore contributor Stanley Lim would not personal shares in any corporations talked about. Singapore private home costs increased by 1.eight% within the fourth quarter of 2012, up from 0.6% within the earlier quarter. Resale prices of government-built HDB residences which are usually bought by Singaporeans, elevated by 2.5%, quarter on quarter, the quickest acquire in five quarters. And industrial property, prices are actually double the levels of three years ago. No withholding tax in the event you sell your property. All your local information regarding vital HDB policies, condominium launches, land growth, commercial property and more

    There are various methods to go about discovering the precise property. Some local newspapers (together with the Straits Instances ) have categorised property sections and many local property brokers have websites. Now there are some specifics to consider when buying a 'new launch' rental. Intended use of the unit Every sale begins with 10 p.c low cost for finish of season sale; changes to 20 % discount storewide; follows by additional reduction of fiftyand ends with last discount of 70 % or extra. Typically there is even a warehouse sale or transferring out sale with huge mark-down of costs for stock clearance. Deborah Regulation from Expat Realtor shares her property market update, plus prime rental residences and houses at the moment available to lease Esparina EC @ Sengkang
  3. One of the biggest reasons investing in a Singapore new launch is an effective things is as a result of it is doable to be lent massive quantities of money at very low interest rates that you should utilize to purchase it. Then, if property values continue to go up, then you'll get a really high return on funding (ROI). Simply make sure you purchase one of the higher properties, reminiscent of the ones at Fernvale the Riverbank or any Singapore landed property Get Earnings by means of Renting

    In its statement, the singapore property listing - website link, government claimed that the majority citizens buying their first residence won't be hurt by the new measures. Some concessions can even be prolonged to chose teams of consumers, similar to married couples with a minimum of one Singaporean partner who are purchasing their second property so long as they intend to promote their first residential property. Lower the LTV limit on housing loans granted by monetary establishments regulated by MAS from 70% to 60% for property purchasers who are individuals with a number of outstanding housing loans on the time of the brand new housing purchase. Singapore Property Measures - 30 August 2010 The most popular seek for the number of bedrooms in Singapore is 4, followed by 2 and three. Lush Acres EC @ Sengkang

    Discover out more about real estate funding in the area, together with info on international funding incentives and property possession. Many Singaporeans have been investing in property across the causeway in recent years, attracted by comparatively low prices. However, those who need to exit their investments quickly are likely to face significant challenges when trying to sell their property – and could finally be stuck with a property they can't sell. Career improvement programmes, in-house valuation, auctions and administrative help, venture advertising and marketing, skilled talks and traisning are continuously planned for the sales associates to help them obtain better outcomes for his or her shoppers while at Knight Frank Singapore. No change Present Rules

    Extending the tax exemption would help. The exemption, which may be as a lot as $2 million per family, covers individuals who negotiate a principal reduction on their existing mortgage, sell their house short (i.e., for lower than the excellent loans), or take part in a foreclosure course of. An extension of theexemption would seem like a common-sense means to assist stabilize the housing market, but the political turmoil around the fiscal-cliff negotiations means widespread sense could not win out. Home Minority Chief Nancy Pelosi (D-Calif.) believes that the mortgage relief provision will be on the table during the grand-cut price talks, in response to communications director Nadeam Elshami. Buying or promoting of blue mild bulbs is unlawful.

    A vendor's stamp duty has been launched on industrial property for the primary time, at rates ranging from 5 per cent to 15 per cent. The Authorities might be trying to reassure the market that they aren't in opposition to foreigners and PRs investing in Singapore's property market. They imposed these measures because of extenuating components available in the market." The sale of new dual-key EC models will even be restricted to multi-generational households only. The models have two separate entrances, permitting grandparents, for example, to dwell separately. The vendor's stamp obligation takes effect right this moment and applies to industrial property and plots which might be offered inside three years of the date of buy. JLL named Best Performing Property Brand for second year running

    The data offered is for normal info purposes only and isn't supposed to be personalised investment or monetary advice. Motley Fool Singapore contributor Stanley Lim would not personal shares in any corporations talked about. Singapore private home costs increased by 1.eight% within the fourth quarter of 2012, up from 0.6% within the earlier quarter. Resale prices of government-built HDB residences which are usually bought by Singaporeans, elevated by 2.5%, quarter on quarter, the quickest acquire in five quarters. And industrial property, prices are actually double the levels of three years ago. No withholding tax in the event you sell your property. All your local information regarding vital HDB policies, condominium launches, land growth, commercial property and more

    There are various methods to go about discovering the precise property. Some local newspapers (together with the Straits Instances ) have categorised property sections and many local property brokers have websites. Now there are some specifics to consider when buying a 'new launch' rental. Intended use of the unit Every sale begins with 10 p.c low cost for finish of season sale; changes to 20 % discount storewide; follows by additional reduction of fiftyand ends with last discount of 70 % or extra. Typically there is even a warehouse sale or transferring out sale with huge mark-down of costs for stock clearance. Deborah Regulation from Expat Realtor shares her property market update, plus prime rental residences and houses at the moment available to lease Esparina EC @ Sengkang
  4. S&TR | November 2003: Maglev on the Development Track for Urban Transportation. Llnl.gov (2003-11-07). Retrieved on 2013-07-12.
  5. Thompson, Marc T. Eddy current magnetic levitation, models and experiments. (PDF) . Retrieved on 2013-07-12.
  6. Levitated Ball-Levitating a 1 cm aluminum sphere. Sprott.physics.wisc.edu. Retrieved on 2013-07-12.
  7. One of the biggest reasons investing in a Singapore new launch is an effective things is as a result of it is doable to be lent massive quantities of money at very low interest rates that you should utilize to purchase it. Then, if property values continue to go up, then you'll get a really high return on funding (ROI). Simply make sure you purchase one of the higher properties, reminiscent of the ones at Fernvale the Riverbank or any Singapore landed property Get Earnings by means of Renting

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    Discover out more about real estate funding in the area, together with info on international funding incentives and property possession. Many Singaporeans have been investing in property across the causeway in recent years, attracted by comparatively low prices. However, those who need to exit their investments quickly are likely to face significant challenges when trying to sell their property – and could finally be stuck with a property they can't sell. Career improvement programmes, in-house valuation, auctions and administrative help, venture advertising and marketing, skilled talks and traisning are continuously planned for the sales associates to help them obtain better outcomes for his or her shoppers while at Knight Frank Singapore. No change Present Rules

    Extending the tax exemption would help. The exemption, which may be as a lot as $2 million per family, covers individuals who negotiate a principal reduction on their existing mortgage, sell their house short (i.e., for lower than the excellent loans), or take part in a foreclosure course of. An extension of theexemption would seem like a common-sense means to assist stabilize the housing market, but the political turmoil around the fiscal-cliff negotiations means widespread sense could not win out. Home Minority Chief Nancy Pelosi (D-Calif.) believes that the mortgage relief provision will be on the table during the grand-cut price talks, in response to communications director Nadeam Elshami. Buying or promoting of blue mild bulbs is unlawful.

    A vendor's stamp duty has been launched on industrial property for the primary time, at rates ranging from 5 per cent to 15 per cent. The Authorities might be trying to reassure the market that they aren't in opposition to foreigners and PRs investing in Singapore's property market. They imposed these measures because of extenuating components available in the market." The sale of new dual-key EC models will even be restricted to multi-generational households only. The models have two separate entrances, permitting grandparents, for example, to dwell separately. The vendor's stamp obligation takes effect right this moment and applies to industrial property and plots which might be offered inside three years of the date of buy. JLL named Best Performing Property Brand for second year running

    The data offered is for normal info purposes only and isn't supposed to be personalised investment or monetary advice. Motley Fool Singapore contributor Stanley Lim would not personal shares in any corporations talked about. Singapore private home costs increased by 1.eight% within the fourth quarter of 2012, up from 0.6% within the earlier quarter. Resale prices of government-built HDB residences which are usually bought by Singaporeans, elevated by 2.5%, quarter on quarter, the quickest acquire in five quarters. And industrial property, prices are actually double the levels of three years ago. No withholding tax in the event you sell your property. All your local information regarding vital HDB policies, condominium launches, land growth, commercial property and more

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  8. 8.0 8.1 "The Frog That Learned to Fly". Radboud University Nijmegen. Retrieved 19 October 2010. For Geim's account of diamagnetic levitation, see Geim, Andrey. Is a upcoming condominium situated within the neighbourhood of Hillview The Singapore authorities has put in place a brand new subsidised pancreas transplant programme (Thinkstock picture). In the latest effort to spur funding in blighted areas of one of the city's poorest neighborhoods, Chicago plans to promote several hundred properties for the worth of a sweet bar.

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    residences and penthouses. Fashionable interiors and quality designer fittings. Excellent recreational amenities. You can start by having a correct dialogue with individuals near you about investing on a family. This can normally lead you to 2 most important questions; what are the benefits of investing on a new apartment and the way you are going to find the perfect individual that can assist you in investing. The Venue Residences to Stay, Store and Dine, a luxurious mixeddevelopment by CDL in preparation for launch now. Looking for registrationof curiosity. TheMidtown is a mixed improvement near Hougang MRT. It's ex-Hougang Plazaand will comprise of residences constructed above business shops, duplexrestaurants and buying a property in singapore grocery store. VVIP Preview Quickly! Register Now. Late 2012, Probably 2013. Physics Today. September 1998. pp. 36–39. Retrieved 19 October 2010. For the experiment with Berry, see Berry, M. V.; Geim, Andre. (1997). Is a upcoming condominium situated within the neighbourhood of Hillview The Singapore authorities has put in place a brand new subsidised pancreas transplant programme (Thinkstock picture). In the latest effort to spur funding in blighted areas of one of the city's poorest neighborhoods, Chicago plans to promote several hundred properties for the worth of a sweet bar.

    When clients ask concerning the subsequent batch of items for launch, gross sales representatives might hint that subsequent phases will supply items with poorer view or lower high quality finishings, even if they are offered at greater prices. Tempted patrons are often unaware that the value of those goodies can easily be offset by a slight drop in the property's market worth. It is due to this fact more sensible to get an immediate discount off the listing worth. Ask the gross sales consultant the estimated value of that branded equipment or furnishing package, then request for a direct deduction from the unit's asking price in lieu of the developer's goodie. December 4, 2013 by iskandarinsider November four, 2013 by iskandarinsider October 23, 2013 by iskandarinsider

    With elevated accessibility from the northern a part of Singapore via the two new MRT stations, Woodlands North MRT Station and Woodlands South MRT Station , along with the longer term North South Expressway NSE, that will link Woodlands, Sembawang and Yishun to the city, journey could be made easier. To qualify for the "Giant Lot Program," applicants should already personal property on the identical block as the lot they wish to buy; they have to also be present on property taxes, have no financial obligations to the town (like water bills or parking tickets) and should tell the city how they plan to make use of the property, DNAinfo Chicago experiences. New Condo Trilinq @ Clementi New Condominium La fiesta @ Sengkang MRT Expertise Guru Property's tantalizing new property launch! And the Web site

    The Brilliant Hill Drive condominium is an exciting upcoming development in Higher Thomson space by UVD Pte Ltd, a joint venture between Singapore Land and UOL Group Restricted. Located alongside Vibrant Hill Drive, this site is well located with close proximity to Thomson Plaza and the longer term Upper Thomson MRT. Get pleasure from a inexperienced and wholesome life-style with visits to MacRitchie Reservoir, Lower Peirce Reservoir, Bishan Park and Singapore Island Golf Course which are simply minutes' drive away

    Whereas every effort has been made to ensure that all information displayed herein are correct and full, the information are indicative somewhat than definitive. Thus its accuracy, whether or not express or implicit, isn't assured and to the fullest extent permitted by relevant legal guidelines. The Creator/Developer/Huttons Actual Estate Group does not accept duty for any errors, inaccuracies, omissions or for any loss which could result immediately or indirectly from reliance on the content herein. The Creator also reserves the right to right or replace the content at any time with out prior notification. Customers are advised to contact the advertiser for any clarifications or newest updates.

    MAS agrees that it is crucial for banks to make use of valuations which are reflective of precise property values. We anticipate banks to adopt sound valuation processes. These embrace partaking independent valuers from corporations that aren't concerned within the property transaction as sales brokers or consultants, allocating valuation assignments randomly or on a rotational foundation, obtaining multiple valuations for every property, and checking that the valuations are cheap.

    residences and penthouses. Fashionable interiors and quality designer fittings. Excellent recreational amenities. You can start by having a correct dialogue with individuals near you about investing on a family. This can normally lead you to 2 most important questions; what are the benefits of investing on a new apartment and the way you are going to find the perfect individual that can assist you in investing. The Venue Residences to Stay, Store and Dine, a luxurious mixeddevelopment by CDL in preparation for launch now. Looking for registrationof curiosity. TheMidtown is a mixed improvement near Hougang MRT. It's ex-Hougang Plazaand will comprise of residences constructed above business shops, duplexrestaurants and buying a property in singapore grocery store. VVIP Preview Quickly! Register Now. Late 2012, Probably 2013. European Journal of Physics 18: 307–313. Retrieved 19 October 2010.
  9. Diamagnetically stabilized magnet levitation. (PDF) . Retrieved on 2013-07-12.
  10. Template:US patent reference
  11. 11.0 11.1 One of the biggest reasons investing in a Singapore new launch is an effective things is as a result of it is doable to be lent massive quantities of money at very low interest rates that you should utilize to purchase it. Then, if property values continue to go up, then you'll get a really high return on funding (ROI). Simply make sure you purchase one of the higher properties, reminiscent of the ones at Fernvale the Riverbank or any Singapore landed property Get Earnings by means of Renting

    In its statement, the singapore property listing - website link, government claimed that the majority citizens buying their first residence won't be hurt by the new measures. Some concessions can even be prolonged to chose teams of consumers, similar to married couples with a minimum of one Singaporean partner who are purchasing their second property so long as they intend to promote their first residential property. Lower the LTV limit on housing loans granted by monetary establishments regulated by MAS from 70% to 60% for property purchasers who are individuals with a number of outstanding housing loans on the time of the brand new housing purchase. Singapore Property Measures - 30 August 2010 The most popular seek for the number of bedrooms in Singapore is 4, followed by 2 and three. Lush Acres EC @ Sengkang

    Discover out more about real estate funding in the area, together with info on international funding incentives and property possession. Many Singaporeans have been investing in property across the causeway in recent years, attracted by comparatively low prices. However, those who need to exit their investments quickly are likely to face significant challenges when trying to sell their property – and could finally be stuck with a property they can't sell. Career improvement programmes, in-house valuation, auctions and administrative help, venture advertising and marketing, skilled talks and traisning are continuously planned for the sales associates to help them obtain better outcomes for his or her shoppers while at Knight Frank Singapore. No change Present Rules

    Extending the tax exemption would help. The exemption, which may be as a lot as $2 million per family, covers individuals who negotiate a principal reduction on their existing mortgage, sell their house short (i.e., for lower than the excellent loans), or take part in a foreclosure course of. An extension of theexemption would seem like a common-sense means to assist stabilize the housing market, but the political turmoil around the fiscal-cliff negotiations means widespread sense could not win out. Home Minority Chief Nancy Pelosi (D-Calif.) believes that the mortgage relief provision will be on the table during the grand-cut price talks, in response to communications director Nadeam Elshami. Buying or promoting of blue mild bulbs is unlawful.

    A vendor's stamp duty has been launched on industrial property for the primary time, at rates ranging from 5 per cent to 15 per cent. The Authorities might be trying to reassure the market that they aren't in opposition to foreigners and PRs investing in Singapore's property market. They imposed these measures because of extenuating components available in the market." The sale of new dual-key EC models will even be restricted to multi-generational households only. The models have two separate entrances, permitting grandparents, for example, to dwell separately. The vendor's stamp obligation takes effect right this moment and applies to industrial property and plots which might be offered inside three years of the date of buy. JLL named Best Performing Property Brand for second year running

    The data offered is for normal info purposes only and isn't supposed to be personalised investment or monetary advice. Motley Fool Singapore contributor Stanley Lim would not personal shares in any corporations talked about. Singapore private home costs increased by 1.eight% within the fourth quarter of 2012, up from 0.6% within the earlier quarter. Resale prices of government-built HDB residences which are usually bought by Singaporeans, elevated by 2.5%, quarter on quarter, the quickest acquire in five quarters. And industrial property, prices are actually double the levels of three years ago. No withholding tax in the event you sell your property. All your local information regarding vital HDB policies, condominium launches, land growth, commercial property and more

    There are various methods to go about discovering the precise property. Some local newspapers (together with the Straits Instances ) have categorised property sections and many local property brokers have websites. Now there are some specifics to consider when buying a 'new launch' rental. Intended use of the unit Every sale begins with 10 p.c low cost for finish of season sale; changes to 20 % discount storewide; follows by additional reduction of fiftyand ends with last discount of 70 % or extra. Typically there is even a warehouse sale or transferring out sale with huge mark-down of costs for stock clearance. Deborah Regulation from Expat Realtor shares her property market update, plus prime rental residences and houses at the moment available to lease Esparina EC @ Sengkang
  12. Trans-Atlantic MagLev | Popular Science. Popsci.com. Retrieved on 2013-07-12.
  13. Japanese magnetic train sets new world record | World news. The Guardian (2003-12-03). Retrieved on 2013-07-12.
  14. Muck, O. German patent no. 42204 (Oct. 30, 1923)
  15. One of the biggest reasons investing in a Singapore new launch is an effective things is as a result of it is doable to be lent massive quantities of money at very low interest rates that you should utilize to purchase it. Then, if property values continue to go up, then you'll get a really high return on funding (ROI). Simply make sure you purchase one of the higher properties, reminiscent of the ones at Fernvale the Riverbank or any Singapore landed property Get Earnings by means of Renting

    In its statement, the singapore property listing - website link, government claimed that the majority citizens buying their first residence won't be hurt by the new measures. Some concessions can even be prolonged to chose teams of consumers, similar to married couples with a minimum of one Singaporean partner who are purchasing their second property so long as they intend to promote their first residential property. Lower the LTV limit on housing loans granted by monetary establishments regulated by MAS from 70% to 60% for property purchasers who are individuals with a number of outstanding housing loans on the time of the brand new housing purchase. Singapore Property Measures - 30 August 2010 The most popular seek for the number of bedrooms in Singapore is 4, followed by 2 and three. Lush Acres EC @ Sengkang

    Discover out more about real estate funding in the area, together with info on international funding incentives and property possession. Many Singaporeans have been investing in property across the causeway in recent years, attracted by comparatively low prices. However, those who need to exit their investments quickly are likely to face significant challenges when trying to sell their property – and could finally be stuck with a property they can't sell. Career improvement programmes, in-house valuation, auctions and administrative help, venture advertising and marketing, skilled talks and traisning are continuously planned for the sales associates to help them obtain better outcomes for his or her shoppers while at Knight Frank Singapore. No change Present Rules

    Extending the tax exemption would help. The exemption, which may be as a lot as $2 million per family, covers individuals who negotiate a principal reduction on their existing mortgage, sell their house short (i.e., for lower than the excellent loans), or take part in a foreclosure course of. An extension of theexemption would seem like a common-sense means to assist stabilize the housing market, but the political turmoil around the fiscal-cliff negotiations means widespread sense could not win out. Home Minority Chief Nancy Pelosi (D-Calif.) believes that the mortgage relief provision will be on the table during the grand-cut price talks, in response to communications director Nadeam Elshami. Buying or promoting of blue mild bulbs is unlawful.

    A vendor's stamp duty has been launched on industrial property for the primary time, at rates ranging from 5 per cent to 15 per cent. The Authorities might be trying to reassure the market that they aren't in opposition to foreigners and PRs investing in Singapore's property market. They imposed these measures because of extenuating components available in the market." The sale of new dual-key EC models will even be restricted to multi-generational households only. The models have two separate entrances, permitting grandparents, for example, to dwell separately. The vendor's stamp obligation takes effect right this moment and applies to industrial property and plots which might be offered inside three years of the date of buy. JLL named Best Performing Property Brand for second year running

    The data offered is for normal info purposes only and isn't supposed to be personalised investment or monetary advice. Motley Fool Singapore contributor Stanley Lim would not personal shares in any corporations talked about. Singapore private home costs increased by 1.eight% within the fourth quarter of 2012, up from 0.6% within the earlier quarter. Resale prices of government-built HDB residences which are usually bought by Singaporeans, elevated by 2.5%, quarter on quarter, the quickest acquire in five quarters. And industrial property, prices are actually double the levels of three years ago. No withholding tax in the event you sell your property. All your local information regarding vital HDB policies, condominium launches, land growth, commercial property and more

    There are various methods to go about discovering the precise property. Some local newspapers (together with the Straits Instances ) have categorised property sections and many local property brokers have websites. Now there are some specifics to consider when buying a 'new launch' rental. Intended use of the unit Every sale begins with 10 p.c low cost for finish of season sale; changes to 20 % discount storewide; follows by additional reduction of fiftyand ends with last discount of 70 % or extra. Typically there is even a warehouse sale or transferring out sale with huge mark-down of costs for stock clearance. Deborah Regulation from Expat Realtor shares her property market update, plus prime rental residences and houses at the moment available to lease Esparina EC @ Sengkang
  16. One of the biggest reasons investing in a Singapore new launch is an effective things is as a result of it is doable to be lent massive quantities of money at very low interest rates that you should utilize to purchase it. Then, if property values continue to go up, then you'll get a really high return on funding (ROI). Simply make sure you purchase one of the higher properties, reminiscent of the ones at Fernvale the Riverbank or any Singapore landed property Get Earnings by means of Renting

    In its statement, the singapore property listing - website link, government claimed that the majority citizens buying their first residence won't be hurt by the new measures. Some concessions can even be prolonged to chose teams of consumers, similar to married couples with a minimum of one Singaporean partner who are purchasing their second property so long as they intend to promote their first residential property. Lower the LTV limit on housing loans granted by monetary establishments regulated by MAS from 70% to 60% for property purchasers who are individuals with a number of outstanding housing loans on the time of the brand new housing purchase. Singapore Property Measures - 30 August 2010 The most popular seek for the number of bedrooms in Singapore is 4, followed by 2 and three. Lush Acres EC @ Sengkang

    Discover out more about real estate funding in the area, together with info on international funding incentives and property possession. Many Singaporeans have been investing in property across the causeway in recent years, attracted by comparatively low prices. However, those who need to exit their investments quickly are likely to face significant challenges when trying to sell their property – and could finally be stuck with a property they can't sell. Career improvement programmes, in-house valuation, auctions and administrative help, venture advertising and marketing, skilled talks and traisning are continuously planned for the sales associates to help them obtain better outcomes for his or her shoppers while at Knight Frank Singapore. No change Present Rules

    Extending the tax exemption would help. The exemption, which may be as a lot as $2 million per family, covers individuals who negotiate a principal reduction on their existing mortgage, sell their house short (i.e., for lower than the excellent loans), or take part in a foreclosure course of. An extension of theexemption would seem like a common-sense means to assist stabilize the housing market, but the political turmoil around the fiscal-cliff negotiations means widespread sense could not win out. Home Minority Chief Nancy Pelosi (D-Calif.) believes that the mortgage relief provision will be on the table during the grand-cut price talks, in response to communications director Nadeam Elshami. Buying or promoting of blue mild bulbs is unlawful.

    A vendor's stamp duty has been launched on industrial property for the primary time, at rates ranging from 5 per cent to 15 per cent. The Authorities might be trying to reassure the market that they aren't in opposition to foreigners and PRs investing in Singapore's property market. They imposed these measures because of extenuating components available in the market." The sale of new dual-key EC models will even be restricted to multi-generational households only. The models have two separate entrances, permitting grandparents, for example, to dwell separately. The vendor's stamp obligation takes effect right this moment and applies to industrial property and plots which might be offered inside three years of the date of buy. JLL named Best Performing Property Brand for second year running

    The data offered is for normal info purposes only and isn't supposed to be personalised investment or monetary advice. Motley Fool Singapore contributor Stanley Lim would not personal shares in any corporations talked about. Singapore private home costs increased by 1.eight% within the fourth quarter of 2012, up from 0.6% within the earlier quarter. Resale prices of government-built HDB residences which are usually bought by Singaporeans, elevated by 2.5%, quarter on quarter, the quickest acquire in five quarters. And industrial property, prices are actually double the levels of three years ago. No withholding tax in the event you sell your property. All your local information regarding vital HDB policies, condominium launches, land growth, commercial property and more

    There are various methods to go about discovering the precise property. Some local newspapers (together with the Straits Instances ) have categorised property sections and many local property brokers have websites. Now there are some specifics to consider when buying a 'new launch' rental. Intended use of the unit Every sale begins with 10 p.c low cost for finish of season sale; changes to 20 % discount storewide; follows by additional reduction of fiftyand ends with last discount of 70 % or extra. Typically there is even a warehouse sale or transferring out sale with huge mark-down of costs for stock clearance. Deborah Regulation from Expat Realtor shares her property market update, plus prime rental residences and houses at the moment available to lease Esparina EC @ Sengkang
  17. "Design and Analysis of a Novel Low Loss Homopolar Electrodynamic Bearing." Lembke, Torbjörn. PhD Thesis. Stockholm: Universitetsservice US AB, 2005. Print. ISBN 91-7178-032-7