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| | One of these options has a chance of producing healing. 5 A 2004 study by Tache et al suggests a shared signalling pathway for generalized anxiety disorder and IBS-D through corticotropin signalling factor and related ligands: might each condition escalate the other. A large component of the teenage experience is socialization. In other words, anxiety has a life of its own and it can trap you and take over your life. Do you feel anxiety is a challenge or its something bad. <br><br>Learning this kind of biofeedback has provided me with that anxiety attack antidote that I never had. When you suffer from performance anxiety, you know it by your immediate physical reactions which can include (but are not limited to) feeling sweaty and faint, fear of losing control, trembling, hyperventilating, shaky voice, diarrhea, weakness in the knees, dry mouth, a desire to flee, difficulty concentrating, pounding heart, and feelings of complete terror, and panic. re probably already familiar with some of the more common strategies. Amazing minds, and incredibly fascinating and useful information. Knowing the truth is going to make you feel so much better, and you should feel a bit at ease once you do. <br><br>Nearly one-half of those diagnosed with depression are also diagnosed with an anxiety. Dogs that are well exercised spend more of their idle time resting rather than panicking. Are your worries logically justified or are you blowing things out of proportion. Some of the symptoms of a heart attack are chest tightness and tingling in the extremities. But, yes, hypertension is on the rise in our society, but this is largely due to diet issues. <br><br>Deep breathing is considered a far healthier way of breathing and encourages your body to improve its overall oxygen flow, which in turn cuts down on anxiety related symptoms. First, when you're having an anxiety attack or feel like you're going to have one, it's really important to focus on your breathing. Connect with others with similar health concerns and issues. Many times meditation has been proven to help cure anxiety. Your breathing was rapid and ineffective, making you feel anxious. <br><br>Any low levels on any of these two neuro transmitters will lead to severe anxiety disorder. atching the news cuts through the heart and sent shivers down the spine of an entire nation that witnessed the tragedy at Virginia Tech, and years earlier, the gruesome shootings at Columbine. Later in life, as adults, an upsetting, stressful or traumatic situation may trigger this negative thinking and set the stage for a depressive or anxiety disorder. In that article I explain the best methods for getting your dog acclimated to his crate to the point where he actually looks forward to time in his safe haven. Ask yourself if there are emotional or other barriers to your progress.<br><br>In case you loved this short article and you wish to receive more details concerning [http://www.stress-lavoro-correlato.info/sitemap/ medicine for anxiety] kindly visit our web site. |
| {{Redirect|LXX|the number in Roman numerals|70 (number)}}
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| [[File:Codex vaticanus.jpg|thumb|200px|right|Fragment of a Septuagint: A column of [[uncial]] text from [[1 Esdras]] in the ''[[Codex Vaticanus Graecus 1209|Codex Vaticanus]]'' c. 325–350 CE, the basis of Sir Lancelot Charles Lee Brenton's Greek edition and [[Brenton's English Translation of the Septuagint|English translation]].]]
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| The '''Septuagint''' {{IPAc-en|ˈ|s|ɛ|p|t|juː|ə|ˌ|dʒ|ɪ|n|t}}, {{IPAc-en|ˈ|s|ɛ|p|t|uː|ə|ˌ|dʒ|ɪ|n|t}}, {{IPAc-en|ˌ|s|ɛ|p|ˈ|t|uː|ə|dʒ|ɪ|n|t}}, {{IPAc-en|ˈ|s|ɛ|p|tʃ|uː|ə|ˌ|dʒ|ɪ|n|t}}, from the Latin word '''septuaginta''' (meaning ''seventy''), is a translation of the [[Hebrew Bible]] and [[Anagignoskomena|some related texts]] into [[Koine Greek]]. The title and its Roman numeral acronym "'''LXX'''" refer to the legendary seventy Jewish scholars who completed the translation as early as the late 2nd century BCE. As the primary Greek translation of the [[Old Testament]], it is also called the "'''Greek Old Testament'''" ("Ἡ μετάφρασις τῶν Ἑβδομήκοντα"). This translation is quoted in the [[New Testament]],<ref>"The quotations from the Old Testament found in the New are in the main taken from the Septuagint; and even where the citation is indirect the influence of this version is clearly seen."{{cite web|title=Bible Translations – The Septuagint|url=http://www.jewishencyclopedia.com/articles/3269-bible-translations|publisher=JewishEncyclopedia.com|accessdate=10 February 2012}}</ref> particularly in the [[Pauline Epistles|writings of Paul the Apostle]],<ref name=paul-septuagint>"His quotations from Scripture, which are all taken, directly or from memory, from the Greek version, betray no familiarity with the original Hebrew text (..) Nor is there any indication in Paul's writings or arguments that he had received the rabbinical training ascribed to him by Christian writers (..)"{{cite web|title=Paul, the Apostle of the Heathen|url=http://www.jewishencyclopedia.com/articles/11952-paul-of-tarsus|publisher=JewishEncyclopedia.com|accessdate=10 February 2012}}</ref> and also by the [[Apostolic Fathers]] and later [[Church Fathers#Greek Fathers|Greek Church Fathers]].
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| The [[Letter of Aristeas|traditional story]] is that [[Ptolemy II Philadelphus|Ptolemy II]] sponsored the translation for use by the many [[History of the Jews in Egypt#Ptolemaic and Roman|Alexandrian Jews]] who were not fluent in Hebrew but fluent in Koine Greek,<ref>"[T]he Egyptian papyri, which are abundant for this particular period, ... have in a measure reinstated Aristeas (about 200 B.C.) in the opinion of scholars. Upon his "Letter to Philocrates" the tradition as to the origin of the Septuagint rests. It is now believed that even though he may have been mistaken in some points, his facts in general are worthy of credence (Abrahams, in "Jew. Quart. Rev." xiv. 321). According to Aristeas, the Pentateuch was translated at the time of Philadelphus, the second Ptolemy (285–247 B.C.), which translation was encouraged by the king and welcomed by the Jews of Alexandria. Grätz ("Gesch. der Juden", 3d ed., iii. 615) stands alone in assigning it to the reign of Philometor (181–146 B.C.). Whatever share the king may have had in the work, it evidently satisfied a pressing need felt by the Jewish community, among whom a knowledge of Hebrew was rapidly waning before the demands of every-day life."{{cite web|title=Bible Translations – The Septuagint |url=http://www.jewishencyclopedia.com/articles/3269-bible-translations |publisher=JewishEncyclopedia.com|accessdate=29 October 2012}}</ref> which was the ''[[lingua franca]]'' of [[Alexandria, Egypt]] and the [[Eastern Mediterranean]]<ref>[http://www.jewishencyclopedia.com/articles/7535-hellenism Jewish Encyclopedia: Hellenism: Range of Hellenic Influence]: "Except in Egypt, Hellenic influence was nowhere stronger than on the eastern shore of the Mediterranean. Greek cities arose there in continuation, or in place, of the older Semitic foundations, and gradually changed the aspect of the country."</ref> from the death of [[Alexander the Great]] in 323 BCE until the development of [[Byzantine Greek]] around 600 CE.
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| The Septuagint should not be confused with the seven or more ''other'' Greek versions of the [[Old Testament]], most of which did not survive except as fragments (some parts of these being known from [[Origen]]'s [[Hexapla]], a comparison of six translations in adjacent columns, now almost wholly lost). Of these, the most important are "the three:" those by [[Aquila of Sinope|Aquila]], [[Symmachus the Ebionite|Symmachus]], and [[Theodotion]].
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| ==Name==
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| {{Bible related}}
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| The Septuagint derives its name from the [[Latin]] ''versio septuaginta interpretum'', "translation of the seventy interpreters", Greek: ''ἡ μετάφρασις τῶν ἑβδομήκοντα'', ''hē metáphrasis tōn hebdomḗkonta'', "translation of the seventy ".<ref name="Jobes and Silva"/> However, it was not until the time of [[Augustine of Hippo]] (354–430 CE) that the Greek translation of the Jewish scriptures came to be called by the Latin term ''Septuaginta''.<ref>Sundberg, in McDonald & Sanders, eds., ''The Canon Debate'', p.72. See Augustine, ''The City of God'', 18.42, where Augustine says that "this name ["Septuaginta"] has now become traditional", indicating that this was a recent event. But Augustine offers no clue as to which of the possible antecedents led to this development.</ref> The Roman numeral LXX (seventy) is commonly used as an abbreviation, as are <math> \mathfrak{G} </math><ref>''[[Biblia Hebraica Stuttgartensia]]'', for instance.</ref> or '''G'''.
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| ==Compositions==
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| ===Legend===
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| These titles refer to a [[Legend|legendary story]], according to which seventy or seventy-two Jewish scholars were asked by the Greek King of Egypt [[Ptolemy II Philadelphus]] to translate the [[Torah]] from [[Biblical Hebrew]] into Greek, for inclusion in the [[Library of Alexandria]].<ref name="Dines">Jennifer M. Dines, ''The Septuagint,'' Michael A. Knibb, Ed., London: T&T Clark, 2004.</ref>
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| This legend is first found in the [[pseudepigraphic]] [[Pseudo-Aristeas|Letter of Aristeas]] to his brother Philocrates,<ref>{{cite web | last = Davila | first = J | title = Aristeas to Philocrates | work = Summary of lecture by Davila, February 11, 1999 | publisher = University of St. Andrews, School of Divinity | year = 2008 | url = http://www.st-andrews.ac.uk/divinity/rt/otp/abstracts/aristeas/ | accessdate = June 19, 2011}}</ref>
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| and is repeated with embellishments by [[Philo of Alexandria]], [[Josephus]]<ref>{{cite book |author=[[Flavius Josephus]] |coauthors= |title=[[Antiquities of the Jews]] |year= |publisher= |quote= | url= |isbn= }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |author=[[William Whiston]] |coauthors= |title=The Complete Works of Josephus |year=1998|publisher=[[T. Nelson Publishers]] |quote= | url=http://books.google.com/books?id=_4YBAAAACAAJ&dq |isbn= 0-7852-1426-7 }}</ref>
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| and by various later sources, including [[St. Augustine]].<ref>Augustine of Hippo, ''The City of God'' 18.42.</ref> A version of the legend is found in the Tractate [[Megillah (Talmud)|Megillah]] of the [[Talmud|Babylonian Talmud]]:
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| <blockquote>
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| King Ptolemy once gathered 72 Elders. He placed them in 72 chambers, each of them in a separate one, without revealing to them why they were summoned. He entered each one's room and said: "Write for me the [[Torah]] of [[Moses|Moshe]], your teacher". God put it in the heart of each one to translate identically as all the others did.<ref>[[Megillah (Talmud)|Tractate Megillah]], pages 9a-9b. The Talmud identifies fifteen specific unusual translations made by the scholars, but only two of these translations are found in the extant LXX.</ref>
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| </blockquote>
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| Philo of Alexandria, who relied extensively on the Septuagint,<ref>"(..) Philo bases his citations from the Bible on the Septuagint version, though he has no scruple about modifying them or citing them with much freedom. Josephus follows this translation closely."{{cite web|title=Bible Translations – The Septuagint|url=http://www.jewishencyclopedia.com/articles/3269-bible-translations|publisher=JewishEncyclopedia.com|accessdate=10 February 2012}}</ref> says that the number of scholars was chosen by selecting six scholars from each of the 12 tribes of Israel.
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| ===History===
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| The date of the 3rd century BCE, given in the legend, is confirmed (for the Torah translation) by a number of factors, including the Greek being representative of early Koine, citations beginning as early as the 2nd century BCE, and early manuscripts datable to the 2nd century.<ref>J.A.L. Lee, A Lexical Study of the Septuagint Version of the Pentateuch (Septuagint and Cognate Studies, 14. Chico, CA: Scholars Press, 1983; Reprint SBL, 2006)</ref>
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| After the Torah, other books were translated over the next two to three centuries. It is not altogether clear which was translated when, or where; some may even have been translated twice, into different versions, and then revised.<ref>Joel Kalvesmaki, [http://www.kalvesmaki.com/LXX/ The Septuagint]</ref> The quality and style of the different translators also varied considerably from book to book, from the [[literal translation|literal]] to [[paraphrase|paraphrasing]] to interpretative.
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| The translation process of the Septuagint can be broken down into several distinct stages, during which the social milieu of the translators shifted from [[Hellenistic Judaism]] to [[Early Christianity]]. The translation began in the 3rd century BCE and was completed by 132 BCE,<ref>[http://books.google.com/books?id=owd9zig7i1oC&pg=PA369 ''Life after death: a history of the afterlife in the religions of the West'' (2004)], Anchor Bible Reference Library, [[Alan F. Segal]], p.363</ref><ref>Gilles Dorival, Marguerite Harl, and Olivier Munnich, ''La Bible grecque des Septante: Du judaïsme hellénistique au christianisme ancien'' (Paris: Cerfs, 1988), p.111</ref><ref name="ndq" /> initially in [[Early centers of Christianity#Alexandria|Alexandria]], but in time elsewhere as well.<ref name="Jobes and Silva">{{cite book |author=[[Karen H. Jobes]] and [[Moises Silva]] |coauthors= |title=Invitation to the Septuagint |year=2001 |publisher=[[Paternoster Press]] |quote= | url=http://books.google.com/books?id=OysSAQAAIAAJ&q |isbn=1-84227-061-3 }}</ref>
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| The Septuagint is the basis for the [[Vetus Latina|Old Latin]], [[Old Church Slavonic language|Slavonic]], [[Syro-hexaplar version|Syriac]], Old [[Armenian language|Armenian]], Old [[Georgian language|Georgian]] and [[Coptic language|Coptic]] versions of the Christian [[Old Testament]].<ref name="Würthwein">Ernst Würthwein, ''The Text of the Old Testament,'' trans. Errol F. Rhodes, Grand Rapids, Mich.: Wm. Eerdmans, 1995.</ref>
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| ===Language===
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| Some sections of the Septuagint may show [[Semitic#Languages|Semiticism]]s, or idioms and phrases based on Semitic languages like [[Hebrew language|Hebrew]] and [[Aramaic]].<ref name="Swete"/> Other books, such as [[book of Daniel|Daniel]] and [[Book of Proverbs|Proverbs]], show Greek influence more strongly.<ref name="Dines"/> [[Jewish Koine Greek]] exists primarily as a category of literature, or cultural category, but apart from some distinctive religious vocabulary is not so distinct from other varieties of [[Koine Greek]] as to be counted a separate dialect.
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| The Septuagint is also useful for elucidating pre-Masoretic [[Classical Hebrew|Hebrew]]: many proper nouns are spelled out with Greek vowels in the LXX, while contemporary Hebrew texts lacked vowel pointing.<ref>Hoffman, [http://www.newjewishbooks.org/ITB Book Review], 2004.</ref> One must, however, evaluate such evidence with caution since it is extremely unlikely that all ancient Hebrew sounds had precise Greek equivalents.<ref>Paul Joüon, SJ, ''A Grammar of Biblical Hebrew,'' trans. and revised by T. Muraoka, vol. I, Rome: Editrice Pontificio Instituto Biblico, 2000.</ref>
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| ===Disputes over canonicity===
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| As the work of translation progressed, the [[Biblical canon|canon]] of the Greek Bible expanded. The Torah ([[Pentateuch]] in Greek) always maintained its pre-eminence as the basis of the canon, but the collection of prophetic writings, based on the Jewish [[Nevi'im]], had various [[hagiographa|hagiographical]] works incorporated into it.
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| In addition some newer books were included in the Septuagint: those called ''[[anagignoskomena]]'' in Greek, because they are not included in the [[Development of the Hebrew Bible canon|Jewish canon]]. Among these are the [[Books of the Maccabees|Maccabees]] and the [[Ben Sira|Wisdom of Ben Sira]]. Also, the Septuagint version of some Biblical books, like [[Book of Daniel|Daniel]] and [[Book of Esther|Esther]], are longer than those in the Jewish canon.<ref>Rick Grant Jones, ''Various Religious Topics,'' "[http://www.webcitation.org/query?url=http://www.geocities.com/Heartland/Pines/7224/Rick/Septuagint/sp_books.html&date=2009-10-25+07:45:33 Books of the Septuagint]", (Accessed 2006.9.5).</ref> Some of these "apocryphal" books (e.g. the [[Book of Wisdom|Wisdom of Solomon]], and the [[2 Maccabees|second book of Maccabees]]) were not translated, but composed directly in Greek.
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| It is not known when the [[Ketuvim]] ("writings") or final part of the [[Tanakh|three part Masoretic Canon]] was established, although some sort of selective processes must have been employed because the Septuagint did not include other well-known Jewish documents such as [[Book of Enoch|Enoch]] or [[Book of Jubilees|Jubilees]] or other writings that are not part of the Jewish canon. (These are now classified as [[Pseudepigrapha]]).
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| Since [[Late Antiquity]], [[Council of Jamnia#Developments attributed to Jamnia|once attributed to a Council of Jamnia]], mainstream [[rabbinic Judaism]] rejected the Septuagint as valid Jewish scriptural texts. Several reasons have been given for this. First, some mistranslations were claimed. Second, the Hebrew source texts used for the Septuagint differed from the [[Masoretic]] tradition of Hebrew texts, which was chosen as canonical by the Jewish rabbis.<ref>"The translation, which shows at times a peculiar ignorance of Hebrew usage, was evidently made from a codex which differed widely in places from the text crystallized by the Masorah." {{cite web|title=Bible Translations – The Septuagint|url=http://www.jewishencyclopedia.com/articles/3269-bible-translations|publisher=JewishEncyclopedia.com|accessdate=10 February 2012}}</ref>
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| Third, the rabbis wanted to distinguish their tradition from the newly emerging tradition of Christianity.<ref name="ndq">"[...] die griechische Bibelübersetzung, die einem innerjüdischen Bedürfnis entsprang [...] [von den] Rabbinern zuerst gerühmt (..) Später jedoch, als manche ungenaue Übertragung des hebräischen Textes in der Septuaginta und Übersetzungsfehler die Grundlage für hellenistische Irrlehren abgaben, lehnte man die Septuaginta ab." Verband der Deutschen Juden (Hrsg.), neu hrsg. von Walter Homolka, Walter Jacob, Tovia Ben Chorin: Die Lehren des Judentums nach den Quellen; München, Knesebeck, 1999, Bd.3, S. 43ff</ref><ref>"Two things, however, rendered the Septuagint unwelcome in the long run to the Jews. Its divergence from the accepted text (afterward called the [[Masoretic]]) was too evident; and it therefore could not serve as a basis for theological discussion or for homiletic interpretation. This distrust was accentuated by the fact that it had been adopted as Sacred Scripture by the new faith [Christianity] [...] In course of time it came to be the canonical Greek Bible [...] It became part of the Bible of the Christian Church."{{cite web|title=Bible Translations – The Septuagint|url=http://www.jewishencyclopedia.com/articles/3269-bible-translations|publisher=JewishEncyclopedia.com|accessdate=10 February 2012}}</ref>
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| Finally, the rabbis claimed for the Hebrew language a divine authority, in contrast to Aramaic or Greek—even though these languages were the lingua franca of Jews during this period (and Aramaic would eventually be given the same holy language status as Hebrew).<ref>Mishnah Sotah (7:2–4 and 8:1), among many others, discusses the sacredness of Hebrew, as opposed to Aramaic or Greek. This is comparable to the authority claimed for the original Arabic Koran according to Islamic teaching. As a result of this teaching, translations of the [[Torah]] into Koine Greek by early Jewish [[Rabbi]]s have survived as rare fragments only.</ref>
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| In time the LXX became synonymous with the "Greek Old Testament", i.e. a Christian canon of writings which incorporated all the books of the Hebrew canon, along with additional texts. The [[Roman Catholic]] and [[Eastern Orthodox]] Churches include most of the books that are in the Septuagint in their canons; however, [[Protestant]] churches usually do not. After the [[Protestant Reformation]], many Protestant Bibles began to follow the Jewish [[Biblical canon|canon]] and exclude the additional texts, which came to be called "[[Biblical Apocrypha|Apocrypha]]" (originally meaning "hidden" but became synonymous with "of questionable authenticity"). The Apocrypha are included under a separate heading in the [[Authorized King James Version|King James Version]] of the Bible, the basis for the [[Revised Standard Version]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://ccat.sas.upenn.edu/nets/edition/ |title=NETS: Electronic Edition |publisher=Ccat.sas.upenn.edu |date=2011-02-11 |accessdate=2012-08-13}}</ref>
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| ===Final form===
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| : ''See also [[Septuagint#Table of books|Table of books]] below.''
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| All the books of western [[Biblical canon|canons]] of the [[Old Testament]] are found in the Septuagint, although the order does not always coincide with the Western ordering of the books. The Septuagint order for the Old Testament is evident in the earliest Christian Bibles (4th century).<ref name="Dines"/>
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| Some books that are set apart in the Masoretic text are grouped together. For example the [[Books of Samuel]] and the [[Books of Kings]] are in the LXX one book in four parts called Βασιλειῶν ("Of Reigns"). In LXX, the [[Books of Chronicles]] supplement Reigns and it is called Paraleipoménon (Παραλειπομένων—things left out). The Septuagint organizes the [[minor prophets]] as twelve parts of one Book of Twelve.<ref name="Dines"/>
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| Some scripture of ancient origin are found in the Septuagint but are not present in the Hebrew. These additional books are [[Book of Tobit|Tobit]], [[Judith]], [[Book of Wisdom|Wisdom of Solomon]], [[Sirach|Wisdom of Jesus son of Sirach]], [[Book of Baruch|Baruch]], [[Letter of Jeremiah]] (which later became chapter 6 of Baruch in the Vulgate), additions to [[Book of Daniel|Daniel]] ([[The Prayer of Azariah|The Prayer of Azarias]], the [[The Prayer of Azariah and Song of the Three Holy Children|Song of the Three Children]], [[Susanna (Book of Daniel)|Susanna]] and [[Bel and the Dragon]]), additions to [[Book of Esther|Esther]], [[1 Maccabees]], [[2 Maccabees]], [[3 Maccabees]], [[4 Maccabees]], [[1 Esdras]], [[Book of Odes (Bible)|Odes]], including the [[Prayer of Manasseh]], the [[Psalms of Solomon]], and [[Psalm 151]].
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| The canonical acceptance of these books varies among different Christian traditions, and there are canonical books not derived from the Septuagint. For more information regarding these books, see the articles [[Biblical apocrypha]], [[Biblical canon]], [[Books of the Bible]], and [[Deuterocanonical books]].
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| ====Incorporations from Theodotion====
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| In most ancient copies of the Bible which contain the Septuagint version of the Old Testament, the [[Book of Daniel]] is not the original Septuagint version, but instead is a copy of [[Theodotion]]'s translation from the Hebrew, which more closely resembles the Masoretic text. The Septuagint version was discarded in favour of Theodotion's version in the 2nd to 3rd centuries CE. In Greek-speaking areas, this happened near the end of the 2nd century, and in Latin-speaking areas (at least in North Africa), it occurred in the middle of the 3rd century. History does not record the reason for this, and St. [[Jerome]] reports, in the preface to the [[Vulgate]] version of Daniel, ''This thing 'just' happened.''<ref name="EncBibTV">{{EncyclopaediaBiblica|article=TEXT AND VERSIONS|section=Text and Versions}}</ref> One of two Old Greek texts of the Book of Daniel has been recently rediscovered and work is ongoing in reconstructing the original form of the book.<ref name="Dines"/>
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| The canonical [[Ezra-Nehemiah]] is known in the Septuagint as "Esdras B", and 1 Esdras is "Esdras A". 1 Esdras is a very similar text to the books of Ezra-Nehemiah, and the two are widely thought by scholars to be derived from the same original text. It has been proposed, and is thought highly likely by scholars, that "Esdras B"—the canonical Ezra-Nehemiah—is Theodotion's version of this material, and "Esdras A" is the version which was previously in the Septuagint on its own.<ref name="EncBibTV"/>
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| ==Use==
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| ===Jewish use===
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| {{seealso|Development of the Hebrew Bible canon}}
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| Pre-Christian Jews, [[Philo]] and [[Josephus]] considered the Septuagint on equal standing with the Hebrew Masoretic text.<ref>J.M. Dines, The Septuagint (2005)</ref> <ref>Alexander Zvielli, Jerusalem Post, June 2009, pp. 37</ref> Manuscripts of the Septuagint have been found among the [[Qumran Scrolls]] in the Dead Sea, and were thought to have been in use among Jews at the time.
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| Starting approximately in the 2nd century CE, several factors led most Jews to abandon use of the LXX. The earliest [[gentile]] Christians of necessity used the LXX, as it was at the time the only Greek version of the Bible, and most, if not all, of these early non-[[Jewish Christians]] could not read Hebrew. The association of the LXX with a rival religion may have rendered it suspect in the eyes of the newer generation of Jews and Jewish scholars.<ref name="Würthwein"/> Instead, Jews used Hebrew/Aramaic [[Targum]] manuscripts later compiled by the [[Masoretes]]; and authoritative Aramaic translations, such as those of [[Targum Onkelos|Onkelos]] and [[Targum Jonathan|Rabbi Yonathan ben Uziel]].<ref>Greek-speaking Judaism (see also [[Hellenistic Judaism]]), survived, however, on a smaller scale into the medieval period. Cf. Natalio Fernández Marcos, ''The Septuagint in Context: Introduction to the Greek Bible,'' Leiden: Brill, 2000.</ref>
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| What was perhaps most significant for the LXX, as distinct from other Greek versions, was that the LXX began to lose Jewish sanction after differences between it and contemporary Hebrew scriptures were discovered (see above). Even [[Hellenistic Judaism|Greek-speaking Jews]] tended less to the LXX, preferring other Jewish versions in Greek, such as that of the 2nd-century [[Aquila of Sinope|Aquila]] translation, which seemed to be more concordant with contemporary Hebrew texts.<ref name="Würthwein"/> While Jews have not used the LXX in worship or religious study since the 2nd century CE, recent scholarship has brought renewed interest in it in the field of Judaic Studies.
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| ===Christian use===
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| {{seealso|Development of the Old Testament canon}}
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| The [[Early Christian]] Church used the Greek texts<ref name=lxxshift>"The translation, which shows at times a peculiar ignorance of Hebrew usage, was evidently made from a codex which differed widely in places from the text crystallized by the Masorah (..) Two things, however, rendered the Septuagint unwelcome in the long run to the Jews. Its divergence from the accepted text (afterward called the [[Masoretic]]) was too evident; and it therefore could not serve as a basis for theological discussion or for homiletic interpretation. This distrust was accentuated by the fact that it had been adopted as Sacred Scripture by the new faith [Christianity] (..) In course of time it came to be the canonical Greek Bible (..) It became part of the Bible of the Christian Church."{{cite web|title=Bible Translations – The Septuagint|url=http://www.jewishencyclopedia.com/articles/3269-bible-translations|publisher=JewishEncyclopedia.com|accessdate=10 February 2012}}</ref> since Greek was a [[lingua franca]] of the Roman Empire at the time, and the language of the Greco-Roman Church ([[Aramaic]] was the language of [[Syriac Christianity]], which used the [[Targums]]).
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| The relationship between the apostolic use of the [[Old Testament]], for example, the Septuagint and the now lost Hebrew texts (though to some degree and in some form carried on in Masoretic tradition) is complicated. The Septuagint seems to have been a major source for the [[Apostles]], but it is not the only one. St. Jerome offered, for example, Matt 2:15 and 2:23, John 19:37, John 7:38, 1 Cor. 2:9.<ref name="Jerome">St. Jerome, ''Apology Book II''.</ref> as examples not found in the Septuagint, but in Hebrew texts. (Matt 2:23 is not present in current Masoretic tradition either, though according to St. Jerome it was in Isaiah 11:1.) The New Testament writers, when citing the Jewish scriptures, or when quoting Jesus doing so, freely used the Greek translation, implying that Jesus, his Apostles and their followers considered it reliable.<ref name=paul-septuagint /><ref name="Swete">H. B. Swete, ''An Introduction to the Old Testament in Greek,'' revised by R.R. Ottley, 1914; reprint, Peabody, Mass.: Hendrickson, 1989.</ref><ref name=usageNT>"The quotations from the Old Testament found in the New are in the main taken from the Septuagint; and even where the citation is indirect the influence of this version is clearly seen (..)"{{cite web|title=Bible Translations – The Septuagint|url=http://www.jewishencyclopedia.com/articles/3269-bible-translations|publisher=JewishEncyclopedia.com|accessdate=10 February 2012}}</ref>
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| In the [[Early Christian Church]], the presumption that the Septuagint was translated by Jews before the era of Christ, and that the Septuagint at certain places gives itself more to a [[christological]] interpretation than 2nd-century Hebrew texts was taken as evidence that "Jews" had changed the Hebrew text in a way that made them less christological. For example, [[Irenaeus]] concerning [[Isaiah 7:14]]: The Septuagint clearly writes of a ''virgin'' (Greek ''παρθένος'') that shall conceive.<ref name="Paulkovich">{{Citation|title=No Meek Messiah|author= Paulkovich, Michael| year=2012|publisher=Spillix Publishing|ISBN=0988216116| page=24}}</ref> While the Hebrew text was, according to Irenaeus, at that time interpreted by [[Theodotion]] and [[Aquila of Sinope|Aquila]] (both [[proselyte]]s of the Jewish faith) as a ''young woman'' that shall conceive. According to Irenaeus, the [[Ebionites]] used this to claim that Joseph was the (biological) father of Jesus. From Irenaeus' point of view that was pure heresy, facilitated by (late) anti-Christian alterations of the scripture in Hebrew, as evident by the older, pre-Christian, Septuagint.<ref name="Irenaeus">Irenaeus, ''Against Herecies Book III''.</ref>
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| When [[Jerome]] undertook the revision of the [[Vetus Latina|Old Latin]] translations of the Septuagint, he checked the Septuagint against the Hebrew texts that were then available. He broke with church tradition and translated most of the [[Old Testament]] of his [[Vulgate]] from Hebrew rather than Greek. His choice was severely criticized by [[Augustine of Hippo|Augustine]], his contemporary; a flood of still less moderate criticism came from those who regarded Jerome as a forger. While on the one hand he argued for the superiority of the Hebrew texts in correcting the Septuagint on both philological and theological grounds, on the other, in the context of accusations of heresy against him, Jerome would acknowledge the Septuagint texts as well.<ref name="Rebenich2013p58">Rebenich, S., ''Jerome'' (Routledge, 2013), p. 58. ISBN 9781134638444</ref> With the passage of time, acceptance of Jerome's version gradually increased until it displaced the [[Vetus Latina|Old Latin translations]] of the Septuagint.<ref name="Würthwein"/>
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| The [[Eastern Orthodoxy|Eastern Orthodox Church]] still prefers to use the LXX as the basis for translating the Old Testament into other languages. The Eastern Orthodox also use LXX untranslated where Greek is the liturgical language, e.g. in the [[Orthodox Church of Constantinople]], the [[Church of Greece]] and the [[Cypriot Orthodox Church]]. Critical translations of the [[Old Testament]], while using the Masoretic Text as their basis, consult the Septuagint as well as other versions in an attempt to reconstruct the meaning of the Hebrew text whenever the latter is unclear, undeniably corrupt, or ambiguous.<ref name="Würthwein"/> For example, the [[Jerusalem Bible]] Foreword says, "... only when this (the Masoretic Text) presents insuperable difficulties have emendations or other versions, such as the ... LXX, been used."<ref name="JB">Jerusalem Bible Readers Edition, 1990: London, citing the Standard Edition of 1985</ref> The Translator's Preface to the [[New International Version]] says: "The translators also consulted the more important early versions (including) the Septuagint ... Readings from these versions were occasionally followed where the [[Masoretic Text|MT]] seemed doubtful ..."<ref name="NIV">"Life Application Bible" (NIV), 1988: Tyndale House Publishers, using "Holy Bible" text, copyright International Bible Society 1973</ref>
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| ==Textual history==
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| ===Table of books===
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| {| class="toccolours" cellspacing="0px" style="width:75%; margin:auto; clear:center; text-align:left; font-size:85%;"
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| |- style="vertical-align:bottom; font-weight:bold;"
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| | style="border-bottom:2px groove #aaa; "| The Orthodox <br>Old Testament <ref name="Jobes and Silva"/><ref name="McLay">Timothy McLay, ''The Use of the Septuagint in New Testament Research ISBN 0-8028-6091-5.''—The current standard introduction on the NT & LXX.</ref><ref>The canon of the original Old Greek LXX is disputed. This table reflects the canon of the Old Testament as used currently in Orthodoxy.</ref>
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| | style="border-bottom:2px groove #aaa; "|Greek-based<br> name
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| | style="border-bottom:2px groove #aaa; "|Conventional<br> English name
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| !colspan=3|Law
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| |-
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| | style="text-indent:1em"|{{lang|grc|Γένεσις}} || Génesis || Genesis
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| |-
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| | style="text-indent:1em"|{{lang|grc|Ἔξοδος}} || Éxodos || Exodus
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| |-
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| | style="text-indent:1em"|{{lang|grc|Λευϊτικόν}} || Leuitikón || Leviticus
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| |-
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| | style="text-indent:1em"|{{lang|grc|Ἀριθμοί}} || Arithmoí || Numbers
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| |-
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| | style="text-indent:1em"|{{lang|grc|Δευτερονόμιον}} || Deuteronómion || Deuteronomy
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| |-
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| !colspan=3|History
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| |-
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| | style="text-indent:1em"|{{lang|grc|Ἰησοῦς Nαυῆ}} || Iêsous Nauê || Joshua
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| |-
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| | style="text-indent:1em"|{{lang|grc|Κριταί}} || Kritaí || Judges
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| |-
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| | style="text-indent:1em"|{{lang|grc|Ῥούθ}} || Roúth || Ruth
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| |-
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| | style="text-indent:1em"|{{lang|grc|Βασιλειῶν Αʹ<ref>{{lang|grc|Βασιλειῶν}} (Basileiōn) is the genitive plural of {{lang|grc|Βασιλεῖα}} (Basileia).</small><br></ref>}} || I Reigns || I Samuel
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| |-
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| | style="text-indent:1em"|{{lang|grc|Βασιλειῶν Βʹ}} || II Reigns || II Samuel
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| |-
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| | style="text-indent:1em"|{{lang|grc|Βασιλειῶν Γʹ}} || III Reigns || I Kings
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| |-
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| | style="text-indent:1em"|{{lang|grc|Βασιλειῶν Δʹ}} || IV Reigns || II Kings
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| |-
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| | style="text-indent:1em"|{{lang|grc|Παραλειπομένων Αʹ}} || I Paralipomenon<ref>That is, ''Things set aside'' from {{lang|grc|Ἔσδρας Αʹ}}.</ref> || I Chronicles
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| |-
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| | style="text-indent:1em"|{{lang|grc|Παραλειπομένων Βʹ}} || II Paralipomenon || II Chronicles
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| | style="text-indent:1em"|{{lang|grc|Ἔσδρας Αʹ}} || I Esdras || 1 Esdras
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| |-
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| | style="text-indent:1em"|{{lang|grc|Ἔσδρας Βʹ}} || II Esdras || Ezra-Nehemiah
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| |-
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| | style="text-indent:1em"|{{lang|grc|Τωβίτ}}<ref>also called Τωβείτ or Τωβίθ in some sources.</ref> || Tobit || Tobit or Tobias
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| | style="text-indent:1em"|{{lang|grc|Ἰουδίθ}} || Ioudith || Judith
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| | style="text-indent:1em"|{{lang|grc|Ἐσθήρ}} || Esther || Esther with additions
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| | style="text-indent:1em"|{{lang|grc|Μακκαβαίων Αʹ}} || [[I Maccabees|I Makkabees]] || 1 Maccabees
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| |-
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| | style="text-indent:1em"|{{lang|grc|Μακκαβαίων Βʹ}} || [[II Maccabees|II Makkabees]] || 2 Maccabees
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| |-
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| | style="text-indent:1em"|{{lang|grc|Μακκαβαίων Γʹ}} || [[III Maccabees|III Makkabees]] || 3 Maccabees
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| |-
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| !colspan=3|Wisdom
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| | style="text-indent:1em"|{{lang|grc|Ψαλμοί}} || Psalms || Psalms
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| | style="text-indent:2em"|{{lang|grc|Ψαλμός ΡΝΑʹ}} || [[Psalm 151]] || Psalm 151
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| | style="text-indent:1em"|{{lang|grc|Προσευχὴ Μανασσῆ}} || [[Prayer of Manasseh]] || Prayer of Manasseh
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| |-
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| | style="text-indent:1em"|{{lang|grc|Ἰώβ}} || Iōb || Job
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| | style="text-indent:1em"|{{lang|grc|Παροιμίαι}} || Proverbs || Proverbs
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| | style="text-indent:1em"|{{lang|grc|Ἐκκλησιαστής}} || Ecclesiastes || Ecclesiastes
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| |-
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| | style="text-indent:1em"|{{lang|grc|Ἆσμα Ἀσμάτων}} || [[Shir Hashirim|Song of Songs]] || Song of Solomon or Canticles
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| | style="text-indent:1em"|{{lang|grc|Σοφία Σαλoμῶντος}} || Wisdom of Solomon || Wisdom
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| | style="text-indent:1em"|{{lang|grc|Σοφία Ἰησοῦ Σειράχ}} || [[Sirach|Wisdom of Jesus the son of Seirach]] || Sirach or Ecclesiasticus
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| | style="text-indent:1em"|{{lang|grc|Ψαλμοί Σαλoμῶντος}} || [[Psalms of Solomon]] || Psalms of Solomon<ref>Not in Orthodox Canon, but originally included in the LXX. http://ccat.sas.upenn.edu/nets/edition/</ref>
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| !colspan=3|Prophets
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| !style="text-indent:1em"|{{lang|grc|Δώδεκα}} || The Twelve || Minor Prophets
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| |- style="text-indent:2em"
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| | {{lang|grc|Ὡσηέ Αʹ}} || I. Osëe || Hosea
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| |- style="text-indent:2em"
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| | {{lang|grc|Ἀμώς Βʹ}} || II. Ämōs || Amos
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| |- style="text-indent:2em"
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| | {{lang|grc|Μιχαίας Γʹ}} || III. Michaias || Micah
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| |- style="text-indent:2em"
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| | {{lang|grc|Ἰωήλ Δʹ}} || IV. Ioel || Joel
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| |- style="text-indent:2em"
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| | {{lang|grc|Ὀβδιού Εʹ}}<ref>Obdiou is genitive from "The vision ''of'' Obdias", which opens the book.</ref> || V. Obdias || Obadiah
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| |- style="text-indent:2em"
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| | {{lang|grc|Ἰωνᾶς Ϛ'}} || VI. Ionas || Jonah
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| |- style="text-indent:2em"
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| | {{lang|grc|Ναούμ Ζʹ}} || VII. Naoum || Nahum
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| |- style="text-indent:2em"
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| | {{lang|grc|Ἀμβακούμ Ηʹ}} || VIII. Ambakum || Habakkuk
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| |- style="text-indent:2em"
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| | {{lang|grc|Σοφονίας Θʹ}} || IX. Sophonias || Zephaniah
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| |- style="text-indent:2em"
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| | {{lang|grc|Ἀγγαῖος Ιʹ}} || X. Ängaios || Haggai
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| |- style="text-indent:2em"
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| | {{lang|grc|Ζαχαρίας ΙΑʹ}} || XI. Zacharias || Zachariah
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| |- style="text-indent:2em"
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| | {{lang|grc|Μαλαχίας ΙΒʹ}} || XII. Messenger || Malachi
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| |-
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| | style="text-indent:1em"|{{lang|grc|Ἠσαΐας}} || Hesaias || Isaiah
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| |-
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| | style="text-indent:1em"|{{lang|grc|Ἱερεμίας}} || Hieremias || Jeremiah
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| |-
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| | style="text-indent:1em"|{{lang|grc|Βαρούχ}} || Baruch || Baruch
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| | style="text-indent:1em"|{{lang|grc|Θρῆνοι}} || Lamentations || Lamentations
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| | style="text-indent:1em"|{{lang|grc|Ἐπιστολή Ιερεμίου}} || [[Epistle of Jeremiah]] || Letter of Jeremiah
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| |-
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| | style="text-indent:1em"|{{lang|grc|Ἰεζεκιήλ}} || Iezekiêl || Ezekiel
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| |-
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| | style="text-indent:1em"|{{lang|grc|Δανιήλ}} || Daniêl || Daniel with additions
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| |-
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| !colspan=3|Appendix
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| |-
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| | style="text-indent:1em"|{{lang|grc|Μακκαβαίων Δ' Παράρτημα}} || [[IV Maccabees|IV Makkabees]] || 4 Maccabees<ref>Originally placed after 3 Maccabees and before Psalms, but placed in an appendix of the Orthodox Canon</ref>
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| |}
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| ===Textual analysis===
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| [[File:TextsOT.PNG|thumb|200px|left|The inter-relationship between various significant ancient manuscripts of the Old Testament (some identified by their siglum). LXX here denotes the original septuagint.]]
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| Modern scholarship holds that the LXX was written during the 3rd through 1st centuries BCE. But nearly all attempts at dating specific books, with the exception of the [[Pentateuch]] (early- to mid-3rd century BCE), are tentative and without consensus.<ref name="Dines"/>
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| Later Jewish revisions and [[recension]]s of the Greek against the Hebrew are well attested, the most famous of which include ''the Three:'' [[Aquila of Sinope|Aquila]] (128 CE), [[Symmachus the Ebionite|Symmachus]], and [[Theodotion]]. These three, to varying degrees, are more literal renderings of their contemporary Hebrew scriptures as compared to the [[Old Greek]]. Modern scholars consider one or more of the 'three' to be totally new Greek versions of the Hebrew Bible.<ref>Compare Dines, who is certain only of Symmachus being a truly new version, with Würthwein, who considers only Theodotion to be a revision, and even then possibly of an earlier non-LXX version.</ref>
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| Around 235 CE, [[Origen]], a Christian scholar in [[Alexandria, Egypt|Alexandria]], completed the [[Hexapla]], a comprehensive comparison of the ancient versions and Hebrew text side-by-side in six columns, with diacritical markings (a.k.a. "editor's marks", "critical signs" or "Aristarchian signs"). Much of this work was lost, but several compilations of the fragments are available. In the first column was the contemporary Hebrew, in the second a Greek transliteration of it, then the newer Greek versions each in their own columns. Origen also kept a column for the Old Greek (the Septuagint) and next to it was a critical apparatus combining readings from all the Greek versions with diacritical marks indicating to which version each line (Gr. στἰχος) belonged.<ref>Jerome, [http://www.ccel.org/ccel/schaff/npnf101.vii.1.LXXII.html From Jerome, Letter LXXI] (404 CE), NPNF1-01. ''The Confessions and Letters of St. Augustin, with a Sketch of his Life and Work,'' Phillip Schaff, Ed.</ref> Perhaps the voluminous Hexapla was never copied in its entirety, but Origen's combined text ("the fifth column") was copied frequently, eventually without the editing marks, and the older uncombined text of the LXX was neglected. Thus this combined text became the first major Christian recension of the LXX, often called the ''Hexaplar recension''. In the century following Origen, two other major recensions were identified by [[Jerome]], who attributed these to [[Lucian of Antioch|Lucian]] and [[Hesychius of Jerusalem|Hesychius]].<ref name="Dines"/>
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| ====Manuscripts====
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| {{main|Septuagint manuscripts}}
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| The oldest manuscripts of the LXX include 2nd century BCE fragments of Leviticus and Deuteronomy (Rahlfs nos. 801, 819, and 957), and 1st century BCE fragments of Genesis, Exodus, Leviticus, Numbers, Deuteronomy, and the Minor Prophets ([[Alfred Rahlfs]] nos. 802, 803, 805, 848, 942, and 943). Relatively complete manuscripts of the LXX postdate the Hexaplar rescension and include the [[Codex Vaticanus Graecus 1209|Codex Vaticanus]] from the 4th century CE and the [[Codex Alexandrinus]] of the 5th century. These are indeed the oldest surviving nearly complete manuscripts of the Old Testament in any language; the oldest extant complete Hebrew texts date some 600 years later, from the first half of the 10th century.<ref name="Würthwein"/><ref>Due to the practice of burying Torah scrolls invalidated for use by age, commonly after 300–400 years.</ref> The 4th century [[Codex Sinaiticus]] also partially survives, still containing many texts of the Old Testament.<ref>Würthwein, op. cit., pp. 73 & 198.</ref> While there are differences between these three codices, scholarly consensus today holds that one LXX—that is, the original pre-Christian translation—underlies all three. The various Jewish and later Christian revisions and recensions are largely responsible for the divergence of the codices.<ref name="Dines"/>
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| ====Differences with the Latin Vulgate and the Masoretic text====
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| The sources of the many differences between the Septuagint, the [[Latin Vulgate]] and the [[Masoretic text]] have long been discussed by scholars. Following the [[Renaissance]], a common opinion among some humanists was that the LXX translators bungled the translation from the Hebrew and that the LXX became more corrupt with time. The most widely accepted view today is that the original Septuagint provided a reasonably accurate record of an early Hebrew textual variant that differed from the ancestor of the Masoretic text as well as those of the [[Latin Vulgate]], where both of the latter seem to have a more similar textual heritage.
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| These issues notwithstanding, the text of the LXX is generally close to that of the Masoretes and Vulgate. For example, Genesis 4:1–6 is identical in both the LXX, Vulgate and the Masoretic Text. Likewise, Genesis 4:8 to the end of the chapter is the same. There is only one noticeable difference in that chapter, at 4:7, to wit:
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| {| cellspacing="5" cellpadding="10"
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| | <center>'''Genesis 4:7, LXX ([[New English Translation of the Septuagint|NETS]])'''</center>||<center>'''Genesis 4:7, Masoretic and English Translation from MT ([[Judaica Press]])'''</center>||<center>'''Genesis 4:7, Latin Vulgate (Douay-Rheims)'''</center>
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| | If you offer correctly but do not divide correctly, have you not sinned? Be still; his recourse is to you, and you will rule over him.||{{Hebrew|הֲלוֹא אִם תֵּיטִיב שְׂאֵת וְאִם לֹא תֵיטִיב לַפֶּתַח חַטָּאת רֹבֵץ וְאֵלֶיךָ תְּשׁוּקָתוֹ וְאַתָּה תִּמְשָׁל בּוֹ:}}<br>Is it not so that if you improve, it will be forgiven you? If you do not improve, however, at the entrance, sin is lying, and to you is its longing, but you can rule over it.||If thou do well, shalt thou not receive? but if ill, shall not sin forthwith be present at the door? but the lust thereof shall be under thee, and thou shalt have dominion over it.
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| |}
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| This instance illustrates the complexity of assessing differences between the LXX and the Masoretic Text as well as the Vulgate. Despite the striking divergence of meaning here between the Septuagint and later texts, nearly identical consonantal Hebrew source texts can be reconstructed. The readily apparent semantic differences result from alternative strategies for interpreting the difficult verse and relate to differences in vowelization and punctuation of the consonantal text.
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| The differences between the LXX and the MT thus fall into four categories.<ref>See, Jinbachian, ''Some Semantically Significant Differences Between the Masoretic Text and the Septuagint'', [http://210.107.99.8/appendage/labhwp/Jinbachian.doc].</ref>
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| :# ''Different Hebrew sources for the MT and the LXX''. Evidence of this can be found throughout the Old Testament. Most obvious are major differences in Jeremiah and Job, where the LXX is much shorter and chapters appear in different order than in the MT, and Esther where almost one third of the verses in the LXX text have no parallel in the MT. A more subtle example may be found in Isaiah 36.11; the meaning ultimately remains the same, but the choice of words evidences a different text. The MT reads ''"...al tedaber yehudit be-'ozne ha`am al ha-homa"'' [speak not the Judean language in the ears of (or—which can be heard by) the people on the wall]. The same verse in the LXX reads according to the translation of Brenton "and speak not to us in the Jewish tongue: and wherefore speakest thou in the ears of the men on the wall." The MT reads "people" where the LXX reads "men". This difference is very minor and does not affect the meaning of the verse. Scholars at one time had used discrepancies such as this to claim that the LXX was a poor translation of the Hebrew original. With the discovery of the Dead Sea Scrolls, variant Hebrew texts of the Bible were found. In fact this verse is found in Qumran (1QIsa''a'') where the Hebrew word "haanashim" (the men) is found in place of "haam" (the people). This discovery, and others like it, showed that even seemingly minor differences of translation could be the result of variant Hebrew source texts.
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| :# ''Differences in interpretation'' stemming from the same Hebrew text. A good example is Genesis 4.7, shown above.
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| :# ''Differences as a result of idiomatic translation issues'' (i.e. a Hebrew idiom may not easily translate into Greek, thus some difference is intentionally or unintentionally imparted). For example, in Psalm 47:10 the MT reads "The shields of the earth belong to God". The LXX reads "To God are the mighty ones of the earth." The metaphor "shields" would not have made much sense to a Greek speaker; thus the words "mighty ones" are substituted in order to retain the original meaning.
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| :# ''Transmission changes in Hebrew or Greek'' (Diverging revisionary/recensional changes and copyist errors)
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| ====Dead Sea Scrolls====
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| The Biblical manuscripts found in [[Qumran]], commonly known as the [[Dead Sea Scrolls]] (DSS), have prompted comparisons of the various texts associated with the Hebrew Bible, including the Septuagint.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.bib-arch.org/e-features/searching-for-better-text.asp |title=Searching for the Better Text – Biblical Archaeology Society |publisher=Bib-arch.org |date= |accessdate=2012-08-13}}</ref> Peter Flint,<ref>[http://twu.ca/research/academic/faculty-research/chairs-and-professorships/canada-research-chairs/peter-flint/curriculum-vitae-dr-peter-flint.html Dr. Peter Flint. Curriculum Vitae. Trinity Western University. Langley, BC, Canada.] Accessed March 26, 2011</ref> cites Emanuel Tov, the chief editor of the scrolls,<ref name = "Elderen" >[http://sbl-site.org/Article.aspx?ArticleID=356 Edwin Yamauchi, '''"Bastiaan Van Elderen, 1924– 2004"''', SBL Forum] Accessed March 26, 2011.</ref> who identifies five broad variation categories of DSS texts:<ref name = "Tov">Tov, E. 2001. Textual Criticism of the Hebrew Bible (2nd ed.) Assen/Maastricht: Van Gocum; Philadelphia: Fortress Press. As cited in [http://books.google.ca/books?id=RBSO35k25_YC&dq=%22dead+sea+scrolls+and+the+septuagint%22,+%22peter+flint%22&lr=&source=gbs_navlinks_s Flint, Peter W. 2002. The Bible and the Dead Sea Scrolls as presented in Bible and computer: the Stellenbosch AIBI-6 Conference: proceedings of the Association internationale Bible et informatique, "From alpha to byte", University of Stellenbosch, 17–21 July, 2000 Association internationale Bible et informatique. Conference, Johann Cook (ed.) Leiden/Boston BRILL, 2002]</ref>
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| :# Proto-Masoretic: This consists of a stable text and numerous and distinctive agreements with the Masoretic Text. About 60% of the Biblical scrolls fall into this category (e.g. 1QIsa-b)
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| :# Pre-Septuagint: These are the manuscripts which have distinctive affinities with the Greek Bible. These number only about 5% of the Biblical scrolls, for example, 4QDeut-q, 4QSam-a, and 4QJer-b, 4QJer-d. In addition to these manuscripts, several others share distinctive individual readings with the Septuagint, although they do not fall in this category.
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| :# The Qumran "Living Bible": These are the manuscripts which, according to Tov, were copied in accordance with the "Qumran practice" (i.e. with distinctive long orthography and morphology, frequent errors and corrections, and a free approach to the text. Such scrolls comprise about 20% of the Biblical corpus, including the Great Isaiah Scroll (1QIsa-a):
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| :# Pre-Samaritan: These are DSS manuscripts which reflect the textual form found in the Samaritan Pentateuch, although the Samaritan Bible itself is later and contains information not found in these earlier scrolls, (e.g. God's holy mountain at Shechem rather than Jerusalem). The Qumran witnesses—which are characterized by orthographic corrections and harmonizations with parallel texts elsewhere in the Pentateuch—comprise about 5% of the Biblical scrolls. (e.g. 4QpaleoExod-m)
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| :# Non-Aligned: This is a category which shows no consistent alignment with any of the other four text-types. These number approximately 10% of the Biblical scrolls, and include 4QDeut-b, 4QDeut-c, 4QDeut-h, 4QIsa-c, and 4QDan-a.<ref name = "Tov"/><ref>Laurence Shiffman, ''Reclaiming the Dead Sea Scrolls'', p. 172</ref><ref>Note that these percentages are disputed. Other scholars credit the Proto-Masoretic texts with only 40%, and posit larger contributions from Qumran-style and non-aligned texts. The Canon Debate, McDonald & Sanders editors, 2002, chapter 6: Questions of Canon through the Dead Sea Scrolls by James C. VanderKam, page 94, citing private communication with Emanuel Tov on biblical manuscripts: Qumran scribe type c.25%, proto-Masoretic Text c. 40%, pre-Samaritan texts c.5%, texts close to the Hebrew model for the Septuagint c.5% and nonaligned c.25%.</ref>
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| The textual sources present a variety of readings. For example, Bastiaan Van Elderen <ref name = "Elderen" /> compares three variations of Deuteronomy 32:43, the last of the Song of Moses.<ref>[http://www.angelfire.com/realm2/oracleofdelphi/DSS_Bas_Evening.pdf Bastiaan Van Elderen. The Dead Sea Scrolls.] Appendix 1, p. 8. Accessed March 26, 2011.</ref>
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| | <center>'''Deuteronomy 32.43, Masoretic'''</center>||<center>'''Deuteronomy 32.43, Qumran'''</center>||<center>'''Deuteronomy 32.43, Septuagint'''</center>
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| :<span style="color:#f00;">'''1 Shout for joy, O nations, with his people'''</span>
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| :<span style="color:#0a0;">'''2 For he will avenge the blood of his servants</span>
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| :<span style="color:#039;">'''3 And will render vengeance to his adversaries</span>
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| :<span style="color:#f60;">'''4 And will purge his land, his people.</span>
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| :<span style="color:#f00;">'''1 Shout for joy, O heavens, with him'''</span>
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| :<span style="color:#603;">'''2 And worship him, all you divine ones'''</span>
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| :<span style="color:#0a0;">'''3 For he will avenge the blood of his sons</span>
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| :<span style="color:#039;">'''4 And he will render vengeance to his adversaries</span>
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| :<span style="color:#f0f;">'''5 And he will recompense the ones hating him</span>
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| :<span style="color:#f60;">'''6 And he purges the land of his people.</span>
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| :<span style="color:#f00;">'''1 Shout for joy, O heavens, with him'''</span>
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| :<span style="color:#603;">'''2 And let all the sons of God worship him'''</span>
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| :<span style="color:#f00;">'''3 Shout for joy, O nations, with his people'''</span>
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| :'''4 And let all the angels of God be strong in him'''
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| :<span style="color:#0a0;">'''5 Because he avenges the blood of his sons</span>
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| :<span style="color:#039;">'''6 And he will avenge and recompense justice to his enemies</span>
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| :<span style="color:#f0f;">'''7 And he will recompense the ones hating</span>
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| :<span style="color:#f60;">'''8 And the Lord will cleanse the land of his people. </span>
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| |}
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| The Dead Sea Scrolls, with their 5% connection to the Septuagint, provide significant information for scholars studying the Greek text of the Hebrew Bible.
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| ===Printed editions===
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| The texts of all printed editions are derived from the three recensions mentioned above, that of Origen, Lucian, or Hesychius.
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| * The ''[[editio princeps]]'' is the [[Complutensian Polyglot]]. It was based on manuscripts that are now lost, but seems to transmit quite early readings.<ref>Joseph Ziegler, "Der griechische Dodekepropheton-Text der Complutenser Polyglotte", ''Biblica'' 25:297–310, cited in Würthwein.</ref>
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| * The Aldine edition (begun by [[Aldus Manutius]]) appeared at Venice in 1518. The text is closer to Codex Vaticanus than the Complutensian. The editor says he collated ancient manuscripts but does not specify them. It has been reprinted several times.
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| * The most important edition is the [http://books.google.ro/books?id=UMBIAAAAcAAJ&printsec=frontcover&hl=ro&source=gbs_ge_summary_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f=false Roman or Sixtine Septuagint], which uses Codex Vaticanus as the base texts and various other later manuscripts for the lacunae in the uncial manuscript. It was published in 1587 under the direction of Cardinal [[Antonio Carafa]], with the help of a group of Roman scholars (Cardinal [[Gugliemo Sirleto]], [[Antonio Agelli]] and [[Petrus Morinus]]), by the authority of Sixtus V, to assist the revisers who were preparing the Latin Vulgate edition ordered by the Council of Trent. It has become the textus receptus of the Greek Old Testament and has had many new editions, such as that of [[Robert Holmes (priest)|Robert Holmes]] and [[James Parsons (clergyman)|James Parsons]] (Oxford, 1798–1827), the seven editions of [[Constantin von Tischendorf]], which appeared at Leipzig between 1850 and 1887, the last two, published after the death of the author and revised by Nestle, the four editions of [[Henry Barclay Swete]] (Cambridge, 1887–95, 1901, 1909), etc. A detailed description of this edition has been made by H. B. Swete in his ''An Introduction to the Old Testament in Greek'' (1900), pp. 174-182.
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| * Grabe's edition was published at Oxford, from 1707 to 1720, and reproduced, but imperfectly, the [[Codex Alexandrinus]] of London. For partial editions, see [[Fulcran Vigouroux]], ''Dictionnaire de la Bible'', 1643 sqq.
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| * [[Alfred Rahlfs]], a longtime Septuagint researcher at Göttingen, began a manual edition of the Septuagint in 1917 or 1918. The completed ''Septuaginta'' was published in 1935. It relies mainly on Vaticanus, Sinaiticus, and Alexandrinus, and presents a critical apparatus with variants from these and several other sources.<ref>Rahlfs, A. (Ed.). (1935/1979). ''Septuaginta.'' Stuttgart: [[Deutsche Bibelgesellschaft]].</ref>
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| * The Göttingen Septuagint ''(Vetus Testamentum Graecum: Auctoritate Academiae Scientiarum Gottingensis editum)'' is a major critical version, comprising multiple volumes published from 1931 to 2009 and not yet complete (the largest missing parts are the history books Joshua through Chronicles except Ruth, and the Solomonic books Proverbs through Song of Songs). Its two critical apparatuses present variant Septuagint readings and variants from other Greek versions.<ref>[http://ccat.sas.upenn.edu/ioscs/editions.html IOSCS: Critical Editions of Septuagint/Old Greek Texts]</ref>
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| * In 2006, a revision of Alfred Rahlfs's ''Septuaginta'' was published by the German Bible Society. This ''editio altera'' includes over a thousand changes to the text and apparatus.<ref>[http://www.scholarly-bibles.com/en/search.html?product_show=96 German Bible Society]</ref>
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| * [[Apostolic Bible Polyglot]] contains a Septuagint text derived mainly from the agreement of any two of the [[Complutensian Polyglot]], the Sixtine, and the Aldine texts.<ref>[http://www.apostolicbible.com/intro.pdf Introduction to the Apostolic Bible]</ref>
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| ===English translations===
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| The Septuagint has been translated a few times into English, the first one (though excluding the Apocrypha) being that of [[Thomson's Translation|Charles Thomson in 1808]]; his translation was later revised and enlarged by C. A. Muses in 1954.
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| [[Brenton's English Translation of the Septuagint|The translation of Sir Lancelot C. L. Brenton]], published in 1851, is a long-time standard. For most of the time since its publication it has been the only one readily available, and has continually been in print. It is based primarily upon the [[Codex Vaticanus]] and contains the Greek and English texts in parallel columns. There also is a revision of the Brenton Septuagint available through Stauros Ministries, called ''The Apostles' Bible'', released in January 2008. [http://www.majoritytext.com]
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| The International Organization for Septuagint and Cognate Studies (IOSCS) has produced ''[[New English Translation of the Septuagint|A New English Translation of the Septuagint and the Other Greek Translations Traditionally Included Under that Title]]'' (NETS), an academic translation based on standard critical editions of the Greek texts. It was published by [[Oxford University Press]] in October 2007.
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| The [[Apostolic Bible Polyglot]], published in 2003, includes the Greek books of the Hebrew canon along with the Greek New Testament, all numerically coded to the AB-Strong numbering system, and set in monotonic orthography. Included in the printed edition is a concordance and index.
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| The [[Orthodox Study Bible]] was released in early 2008 with a new translation of the Septuagint based on the Alfred Rahlfs edition of the Greek text. To this base they brought two additional major sources. First the Brenton translation of the Septuagint from 1851. Second, Thomas Nelson Publishers granted use of the [[New King James Version]] text in the places where the translation of the LXX would match that of the Hebrew Masoretic text. This edition includes the New Testament as well, which also uses the New King James Version. It also includes extensive commentary from an [[Eastern Orthodox Church|Eastern Orthodox]] perspective.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://orthodoxstudybible.com |title=Conciliar Press |publisher=Orthodox Study Bible |date= |accessdate=2012-08-13}}</ref>
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| The [[Eastern / Greek Orthodox Bible]] (EOB) is an extensive revision and correction of Brenton’s translation which was primarily based on [[Codex Vaticanus]]. Its language and syntax have been modernized and simplified. It also includes extensive introductory material and footnotes featuring significant inter-LXX and LXX/MT variants.
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| ==Promotion==
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| The International Organization for Septuagint and Cognate Studies ([http://ccat.sas.upenn.edu/ioscs IOSCS]), a nonprofit, learned society formed to promote international research in and study of the Septuagint and related texts,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://ccat.sas.upenn.edu/ioscs/ |title=IOSCS |publisher=Ccat.sas.upenn.edu |date= |accessdate=2012-08-13}}</ref> has established February 8 annually as International Septuagint Day, a day to promote the discipline on campuses and in communities.
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| The Organization is also publishing the "Journal of Septuagint and Cognate Studies" ([http://ccat.sas.upenn.edu/ioscs/journal/ JSCS]).
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| ==See also==
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| {{Portal|Bible}}
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| * [[Brenton's English Translation of the Septuagint]]
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| * [[Alfred Rahlfs]]—editor of a commonly distributed critical edition of LXX.
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| * ''[[La Bible d'Alexandrie]]''
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| * [[Documentary hypothesis]]—discusses the theoretical recensional history of the [[Torah]]/[[Pentateuch]] in Hebrew.
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| * [[Tanakh at Qumran]]—some of the Dead Sea Scrolls are witnesses to the LXX text.
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| * [[Septuagint manuscripts]]
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| * [[Vulgate]]
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| * [[Book of Job in Byzantine illuminated manuscripts]]
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| * [[Hellenistic Judaism]]
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| ; Manuscripts of Septuagint
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| * [[Cotton Genesis]]
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| * [[Codex Marchalianus]]
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| * [[Papyrus Rylands 458]] – the oldest manuscript
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| * [[Papyrus Fouad 266]] – the second oldest manuscript
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| ==References==
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| {{Reflist|2}}
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| == Further reading ==
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| * Bons, Eberhard, and Jan Joosten, eds. ''Septuagint Vocabulary: Pre-History, Usage, Reception'' (Society of Biblical Literature; 2011) 211 pages; studies of the language used
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| * Kantor, Mattis, ''The Jewish time line encyclopedia: A yearby-year history from Creation to the present'', Jason Aronson Inc., London, 1992
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| * [[Alfred Rahlfs]], [http://www.archive.org/stream/mitteilungendess00akaduoft#page/n9/mode/2up ''Verzeichnis der griechischen Handschriften des Alten Testaments, für das Septuaginta-Unternehmen''], Göttingen 1914.
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| * Makrakis, Apostolos, ''Proofs of the Authenticity of the Septuagint'', trans. by D. Cummings, Chicago, Ill.: Hellenic Christian Educational Society, 1947. ''N.B''.: Published and printed with its own pagination, whether as issued separately or as included together with 2 other works of A. Makrakis in a single volume published by the same film in 1950, wherein the translator's name is identified on the common t.p. to that volume.
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| * W. Emery Barnes, [http://www.archive.org/stream/journaltheologi00unkngoog#page/n208/mode/2up ''On the Influence of Septuagint on the Peshitta''], JTS 1901, pp. 186–197.
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| * Andreas Juckel, [http://syrcom.cua.edu/hugoye/vol8no2/HV8N2Juckel.html ''Septuaginta and Peshitta Jacob of Edessa quoting the Old Testament in Ms BL Add 17134''] JOURNAL OF SYRIAC STUDIES
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| * Martin Hengel, [http://books.google.ca/books?id=LUmGZ0NiweAC&pg=PR5&hl=pl&source=gbs_selected_pages&cad=3#v=onepage&q&f=false ''The Septuagint As Christian Scripture''], Continuum International Publishing Group, 2004.
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| * Rajak, Tessa, ''Translation and survival: the Greek Bible of the ancient Jewish Diaspora'' (Oxford; New York: Oxford University Press, 2009).
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| * Bart D. Ehrman. ''The New Testament: A Historical Introduction to the Early Christian Writings''; 608 pages, Oxford University Press (July, 2011); ISBN 978-0-19-975753-4
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| *Hyam Maccoby. ''The Mythmaker: Paul and the Invention of Christianity''; 238 pages, Barnes & Noble Books (1998); ISBN 978-0-7607-0787-6
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| ==External links==
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| ===General===
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| {{Wikisourcelang|el|Παλαιά Διαθήκη|The complete Greek text of the modern Septuagint}}
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| {{Wikisource|1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Septuagint|1911 Britannica entry}}
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| * [http://www.kalvesmaki.com/LXX/ The Septuagint Online] – Comprehensive site with scholarly discussion and links to texts and translations
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| * [http://www.twu.ca/sites/septuagint/ The Septuagint Institute]
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| * [http://jewishencyclopedia.com/view.jsp?artid=1035&letter=B#3077 ''Jewish Encyclopedia'' (1906): Bible Translations]
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| * [http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/13722a.htm ''Catholic Encyclopedia'' (1913): Septuagint Version]
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| * [http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/15367a.htm#sept ''Catholic Encyclopedia'' (1913): Versions of the Bible]
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| * [http://www.bib-arch.org/e-features/searching-for-better-text.asp Searching for the Better Text: How errors crept into the Bible and what can be done to correct them (Biblical Archaeology Review)]
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| * [http://biblical-studies.ca/lxx/lxx.html Codex: Resources and Links Relating to the Septuagint]
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| * [http://ccat.sas.upenn.edu/rs/rak/earlylxx/earlypaplist.html Extensive chronological and canonical list of Early Papyri and Manuscripts of the Septuagint]
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| * {{Cite EB1911|wstitle=Septuagint}}
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| ===Texts and translations===
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| * [http://www.kalvesmaki.com/LXX/Texts.htm Septuagint/Old Greek Texts and Translations] LXX finder, listing dozens of editions, both print and digital, in various languages and formats. A good place to start.
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| * [http://www.septuagint.org/LXX/ Septuagint and New Testament] – Despite its name, this site does ''not'' in fact provide the LXX, rather a shortened version which eliminates all the LXX books later called "deuterocanonical". The Greek NT is presented in full. Both Greek texts, the (incomplete) LXX and the NT, have [[parsing]] and [[concordance (publishing)|concordance]].
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| * [http://www.ellopos.net/elpenor/greek-texts/septuagint/default.asp Elpenor's Bilingual (Greek / English) Septuagint Old Testament] Greek text (full polytonic unicode version) and English translation side by side. Greek text as used by the Orthodox Churches.
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| * [http://www.jeffzizz.com/septuagint.php PDF version of the Septuagint] (Does not include deuterocanonicals, and lacks diacritical marks)
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| * [http://titus.fkidg1.uni-frankfurt.de/texte/etcs/grie/sept/sept.htm Titus Text Collection: Vetus Testamentum graece iuxta LXX interpretes] (advanced research tool)
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| * [http://www.apostoliki-diakonia.gr/bible/bible.asp?contents=old_testament/contents.asp&main=OldTes Septuagint published by the Church of Greece]
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| * [http://ccat.sas.upenn.edu/gopher/text/religion/biblical/lxxmorph/ Plain text of the whole LXX]
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| * [http://apostolicbible.com Greek-English interlinear of OT & NT]. [[Monotonic orthography]].
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| * [http://www.katapi.org.uk Bible Resource Pages] – contains Septuagint texts (with diacritics) side-by-side with English translations
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| * [http://www.users.dircon.co.uk/~hancock/sept.zip The Septuagint in Greek] as an [[MS Word]] document (requires [http://www.users.dircon.co.uk/~hancock/vudown.htm Vusillus Old Face] ({{wayback|http://www.users.dircon.co.uk/~hancock/vudown.htm}}). Introduction and book abbreviations in Latin.)
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| * [http://www.tricountyi.net/~randerse/Danog.htm The Book of Daniel from an Old Greek LXX]{{Dead link|date=March 2011}} (no diacritics, needs special font)
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| * [http://www.ecmarsh.com/lxx/ Sir Lancelot C.L. Brenton's translation]
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| * [http://ccat.sas.upenn.edu/nets/edition/ The New English Translation of the Septuagint (NETS), electronic edition]
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| * [http://www.lxx.org Project to produce an Orthodox Study Bible (OSB) whose Old Testament is based entirely on the Septuagint.]{{Dead link|date=March 2011}}
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| * [http://www.orthodox-church.info/eob/ EOB: Eastern / Greek Orthodox Bible: includes comprehensive introductory materials dealing with Septuagintal issues and an Old Testament which is an extensive revision of the Brenton with footnotes.]
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| * [http://christianmedia.us/LXXE/ The Septuagint LXX in English (Online text of the entire LXX English translation by Sir Lancelot Brenton)]
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| * [http://www.peterpapoutsis.com/ The Holy Orthodox Bible translated by Peter A. Papoutsis] from the Septuagint (LXX) and the Official Greek New Testament text of the Ecumenical Patriarch.
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| * [http://septuaginta.net Septuagint LXX] – The Septuaginta LXX is an on-going Septuagint project that aims to produce an online critical text of the Septuagint with a comprehensive critical apparatus, and English translation of the Septuagint, Aquila, Theodotion, and Symmachus.
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| * [http://www.ebible.org/eng-lxx2012/index.htm LXX2012: Septuagint in American English 2012] – The Septuagint with Apocrypha, translated from Greek to English by Sir Lancelot C. L. Brenton and published in 1885, with some language updates by Michael Paul Johnson in 2012 (American English)
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| * [http://www.ebible.org/eng-uk-lxx2012/ LXX2012: Septuagint in British/International English 2012] – The Septuagint with Apocrypha, translated from Greek to English by Sir Lancelot C. L. Brenton and published in 1885, with some language updates by Michael Paul Johnson in 2012 (British/International English)
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| ===The LXX and the NT===
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| * [http://www.scripturecatholic.com/septuagint.html Septuagint references in NT] by John Salza
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| * [http://books.google.com/books?id=UakGAAAAQAAJ&printsec=titlepage An Apology for the Septuagint] – by [[Edward William Grinfield]]
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| [[Category:Early versions of the Bible]]
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| [[Category:Septuagint]]
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| [[Category:Judaism-related controversies]]
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| [[Category:Christian biblical canon]]
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| [[Category:3rd-century BC works]]
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| [[Category:Hellenism and Christianity]]
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