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[[File:Shukhov tower shabolovka moscow 02.jpg|thumb|200px|[[Shukhov Tower]] in Moscow.]]
'''Science and technology in [[Russia]]''' developed rapidly since the [[Age of Enlightenment]], when [[Peter the Great]] founded the [[Russian Academy of Sciences]] and [[Saint Petersburg State University]] and [[polymath]] [[Mikhail Lomonosov]] founded the [[Moscow State University]], establishing a strong native tradition in learning and innovation.


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In the 19th and 20th centuries the country produced a large number of notable [[List of Russian scientists|scientists]], making important contributions into [[physics]], [[astronomy]], [[mathematics]], [[computer sciences|computing]], [[chemistry]], [[biology]], [[geology]] and [[geography]]. [[Russian inventors]] and engineers excelled in such areas as [[electrical engineering]], [[shipbuilding]], [[aerospace]], [[weaponry]], [[communications]], [[Information technology|IT]], [[nuclear technology]] and [[space technology]].
 
Recently, the crisis of 1990-s led to the drastic reduction of the state support for science and technology. Many Russian scientists and university graduates went to Europe or United States in the so-called [[brain drain]] migration. In 2000-s, on the wave of a new economic boom, the situation has improved, and the government [[Medvedev modernisation programme|launched a campaign]] aimed into [[modernisation]] and [[innovation]]. Current priorities for the country's technological development include [[Efficient energy use|energy efficiency]], IT (including both common products and the products combined with [[space technology]]), [[Nuclear power|nuclear energy]] and [[pharmaceuticals]].<ref name="Medvedev priorities">[http://en.rian.ru/russia/20091011/156428675.html Rian.ru] [[RIA Novosti]]: Medvedev outlines priorities for Russian economy's modernization</ref>
 
==History==
{{main|Timeline of Russian inventions and technology records|Russian scientists|Russian inventors}}
[[File:Lomonosovportrait.jpg|thumb|160px|[[Mikhail Lomonosov]], Russian [[polymath]] scientist, inventor, poet and artist, the founder of [[Moscow State University]].]]
At the start of the 18th century the [[Reforms of Peter I of Russia|reforms of Peter the Great]] (the founder of [[Russian Academy of Sciences]] and [[Saint Petersburg State University]]) and the work of such champions as [[polymath]] [[Mikhail Lomonosov]] (the founder of [[Moscow State University]]) gave a great boost for development of science and innovation in Russia.
 
Many famous Russian scientists and inventors were [[émigrés]], like [[Igor Sikorsky]], credited with invention of first helicopters, and [[Vladimir Zworykin]], often called the father of TV, chemist [[Ilya Prigogine]], noted for his work on [[dissipative system|dissipative structures]] and [[complex systems]] (1977 [[Nobel Prize for Chemistry]]), economists [[Simon Kuznets]] (1971 [[Nobel Memorial Prize in Economic Sciences|Nobel Prize]]) and  [[Wassily Leontief]] (1973 [[Nobel Memorial Prize in Economic Sciences|Nobel Prize]]), physicist [[Georgiy Gamov]] (an author of the [[Big Bang]] theory), engineer [[Alexander M. Poniatoff]], who created the world's first [[rotary transformer|rotary head recorder]] and social scientist [[Pitirim Sorokin]] who played an important role in development of sociology in the USA. Many foreigners worked in Russia for a long time, like [[Leonhard Euler]] and [[Alfred Nobel]].
 
With many technological achievements in the 19th and 20th centuries, however, since the time of [[Brezhnev stagnation]] Russia was lagging significantly behind [[Western world|the West]] in a number of technologies, especially those concerning [[energy conservation]] and [[consumer goods]] production. The crisis of 1990-s led to the drastic reduction of the state support for science. Many Russian scientists and university graduates left Russia for Europe or United States; this migration is known as a [[brain drain]].
 
In 2000-s, on the wave of a new economic boom, the situation in the Russian science and technology has improved, and the government [[Medvedev modernisation programme|launched a campaign]] aimed at [[modernisation]] and [[innovation]]. Russian President [[Dmitry Medvedev]] formulated top 5 priorities for the country's technological development: [[Efficient energy use|energy efficiency]], IT (including both common products and the products combined with [[space technology]]), [[Nuclear power|nuclear energy]] and [[pharmaceuticals]].<ref name="Medvedev priorities"/> Some progress already has been achieved, with Russia's having nearly completed [[GLONASS]], the only global [[satellite navigation system]] apart from American [[GPS]], and Russia's being the only country constructing [[Russian floating nuclear power station|mobile nuclear plants]].
 
==Science and education==
{{main|Russian Academy of Sciences|Education in Russia|List of Russian scientists}}
 
===Physics===
{{main|List of Russian physicists}}
The Russian [[physics]] school began to develop after Lomonosov who proposed the law of conservation of matter preceding the [[energy conservation law]].  During the period of origin of [[electrodynamics]] [[Vasily Vladimirovich Petrov|Vasily Petrov]] discovered the [[electric arc]] effect in 1802 and [[Heinrich Lenz]] discovered an important [[Lenz's law|law]]  named in his honor.  [[Nikolay Umov]] discovered a fundamental concept of [[Umov-Poynting vector]] and was the first scientist to indicate interrelation between mass and energy proposing the formula [[Mass–energy equivalence|<math>E=kmc^2</math>]] as early as in 1873.<ref>''Умов Н. А.'' Избранные сочинения. М. — Л., 1950.</ref> [[Alexander Stepanovich Popov|Alexander Popov]] was among the [[invention of radio|inventors of radio]].
 
Russian/Soviet physics in the 20th century was one of leading ones in the world.
[[Alexander Friedmann]] was the first scientist to propose an expanding universe model (1922) which greatly influenced cosmology in the 20th century. [[Dmitri Ivanenko]] was the first to propose the proton-neutron model of  [[atomic nuclei]] (1932) and [[nuclear shell model]] (1932).  [[Georgiy Gamov]]  proposed  the theory of the [[alpha decay]] of a nucleus via [[quantum tunneling|tunnelling]] (1928) and was an author of [[Big Bang]] theory.
[[Nikolay Nikolaevich Bogolyubov|Nikolay Bogolyubov]] suggested a triplet [[quark]] model, introduced a new quantum degree of freedom (later called as [[color charge]]) for quarks<ref>N. Bogolubov, B. Struminsky, A. Tavkhelidze. On composite models in the theory of elementary particles. [[JINR]] Preprint D-1968, [[Dubna]] 1965.</ref> and formulated a microscopic theory of [[superconductivity]].<ref>{{Cite journal|author=N. N. Bogoliubov|title=On a New Method in the Theory of Superconductivity|journal=[[JETP|Journal of Experimental and Theoretical Physics]]|volume=34 |issue=1|page=58|year=1958|url=}}</ref> [[Lev Landau]] made fundamental contributions to many areas of [[theoretical physics]] ([[Nobel Prize in Physics]],1962). [[Nikolai Basov]] and [[Alexander Prokhorov]] were co-inventors of [[laser]]s and [[maser]]s ([[Nobel Prize in Physics]],1964). [[Igor Tamm]], [[Andrei Sakharov]] and [[Lev Artsimovich]] developed the idea of [[tokamak]] for controlled [[nuclear fusion]] and created its first prototype, which finally led to the modern [[ITER]] project. [[Yevgeny Zavoisky]] discovered [[electron paramagnetic resonance]] playing important role in studying chemical species. [[Zhores Alferov]] greatly contributed to the creation of modern [[Heterojunction|heterostructure physics and electronics]] which find many applications in modern life: from [[CD]] & [[DVD]] players to  [[fiber optic]] [[transceiver]]s  (Noble Prize in Physics, 2000). In 2010 two Russian-born and -educated physics [[Konstantin Novoselov]] and [[Andre Geim]] were awarded with Noble Prize in Physics for their works in [[graphene]], a material which may have important applications in electronics, aviation and medicine.
 
[[File:Magic Sankt Petersburg - Kunstkammer at White Nights (Weisse Nächte).jpg|thumb|left|200px|[[Kunstkamera]] building, the first headquarters of the [[Russian Academy of Sciences]] in [[Saint Petersburg]].]] A number of achievements of Russian/Soviet scientists remained unknown to general public due to security  considerations or bureaucratic obstacles. E.g. the first design of [[magnetic resonance imaging]] was proposed by [[Vladislav Ivanov (physicist)|Vladislav Ivanov]] in 1960 but was not realized at that time.
 
===Mathematics===
{{main|List of Russian mathematicians}}
In [[mathematics]] [[Nikolai Lobachevsky]], a ''[[Nicolaus Copernicus|Copernicus]] of [[Geometry]]'', founded the [[non-Euclidean geometry]] playing important role in modern physics. In 19th century the international recognition was also gained by such mathematicians as [[Mikhail Ostrogradsky]] and [[Sofia Kovalevskaya]] who was the first major Russian female mathematician, responsible for important original contributions to analysis, differential equations and mechanics, and the first woman appointed to a full professorship in Northern Europe. [[Yevgraf Fyodorov]] was a founder of the modern structural [[crystallography]] ([[Space group|Fedorov group]]). At least after such prominent scientist as [[Chebyshev]] the Russian mathematical school became one of the most influential ones in the world and was represented by numerous figures greatly contributing to different fields of mathematics, physics and computing sciences.<ref>{{cite web|title=Russian Mathematicians in the 20th Century|publisher=Princeton University, USA|url=http://www.worldscibooks.com/mathematics/4499.html|accessdate=10 Apr 2010}}</ref> Chebyshev's students included  [[Aleksandr Lyapunov]] who founded the modern [[stability theory]] (lately deeply developed by such scientists as [[Aleksandr Andronov]] and [[Vladimir Arnold]]), and [[Andrey Markov]] who developed the theory of  [[Markov chain]]s, playing a central role in  information sciences and  modern applied mathematics.
In the beginning of 20th century [[Nikolay Yegorovich Zhukovsky|Nikolai Zhukovsky]] and [[Sergei Chaplygin]] were among founding fathers of the modern [[aerodynamics|aero-]] and [[hydrodynamics]] and [[Vladimir Aleksandrovich Kotelnikov|Vladimir Kotelnikov]] was a pioneer in [[information theory]] by independently proposing the fundamental [[sampling theorem]].  
[[Andrei Kolmogorov]], a leading mathematician of the 20th century,  developed the foundation of the modern [[theory of probability]] and made other key contributions to broadest range of mathematical branches, such as [[turbulence]], [[mathematical logic]], [[topology]], [[differential equations]], [[set theory]], [[automata theory]], [[information theory]], [[theory of algorithms]], [[dynamical systems]], [[stochastic processes]], [[Integral|theory of integration]], [[classical mechanics]], [[mathematical linguistics]],  [[mathematical biology]] and applied sciences. [[Israel Gelfand]] is credited with many important discoveries in algebra, topology, mathematical physics and applied sciences. [[Sergei Sobolev]] developed the theory of [[Sobolev space]] which played an extremely important role in formation of modern mathematical views and introduced the notion of [[distribution (mathematics)|distributions]] generalizing ideas of  Newton and Leibniz.
 
Such mathematicians as [[Lev Pontryagin]], who made major contributions to  topology and functional analysis and a founder of the modern [[optimal control]] theory, [[Andrey Nikolayevich Tychonoff|Andrey Tychonoff]], who was the author of the [[Tychonoff's theorem|"central theorem"]]<ref>{{cite web| title = [[John L. Kelley]]; <cite>General Topology</cite>; ISBN 0-387-90125-6}}</ref> of the [[general topology]], [[Pavel Alexandrov]], a very important figure in topology of the 20th century, and many others made fundamental contributions to different fields of mathematics. Nine Soviet/Russian mathematicians were awarded with [[Fields Medal]], a most prestigious award in mathematics. Recently [[Grigori Perelman]] was offered the first ever Clay [[Millennium Prize Problems]] award for his final proof of the [[Poincaré conjecture]] in 2002.<ref>{{cite web| title = The Poincaré Conjecture | url= http://www.claymath.org/poincare/index.html}}</ref>
 
===Astronomy===
{{main|List of Russian astronomers}}
 
===Chemistry===
{{main|List of Russian chemists}}
Lomonosov was the first Russian chemist, among others he was the founder of the science of [[glass]]. [[File:Periodic table monument.jpg|thumb|200px|A sculpture in honor of [[Dmitry Mendeleev]] and his [[Periodic table]] in [[Slovakia]].]]
[[Dmitry Mendeleev]] invented the [[Periodic table]], that is the main framework of the modern [[chemistry]], while [[Aleksandr Butlerov]] was one of the creators of the theory of [[chemical structure]], playing a central role in [[organic chemistry]]. [[Sergei Vasiljevich Lebedev|Sergei Lebedev]] invented the first commercially viable and mass-produced type of [[synthetic rubber]] ([[polybutadiene synthetic rubber]]). [[Nikolay Nikolayevich Semyonov|Nikolay Semyonov]] made major contributions to explanation of the mechanism of chemical transformation (1956 [[Nobel Prize in Chemistry]]).
 
===Biology===
{{main|List of Russian biologists}}
In [[biology]] [[Dmitry Ivanovsky]] was the first scientist to discover [[virus]]es (1892).<ref>{{Cite book|last=Sebastion|first=Anton|title=A dictionary of the history of science|publisher=Informa Health Care|location=Google Books Excerpt|year=2001|isbn=1-85070-418-X|oclc=9781850704188|url=http://books.google.com/?id=gTXFN-8v95MC&pg=PA267&dq=Dmitry+Iosifovich+Ivanovsky|accessdate=24 Oct 2008|page=267}}</ref> [[Ivan Petrovich Pavlov|Ivan Pavlov]] is widely known for first describing the phenomenon of [[classical conditioning]] and using it for studying brain functions. [[Ilya Mechnikov]] was a pioneer in investigations of the [[immune system]] (1908, [[Nobel Prize in Medicine]]). [[Alexander A. Maximow]] introduced the notion of [[stem cells]].  [[Alexander Oparin]] was a founder of the modern theory of [[origin of life]]. [[Nikolai Koltsov]], a founder of [[molecular biology]], proposed the idea of the molecular mechanism of heredity as early as in 1927 stating that inherited traits would be inherited via a "giant hereditary molecule" which would be made up of "two mirror strands that would replicate in a semi-conservative fashion using each strand as a template". [[Alexey Olovnikov]] suggested  [[telomere hypothesis of aging]] which greatly contributed to the theory of [[aging]] and later was awarded with [[Nobel Prize]] (not shared by Olovnikov).
 
===Electrical engineering===
{{main|List of Russian electrical engineers}}
[[Nikolay Benardos]] introduced the [[arc welding]], further developed by [[Nikolay Slavyanov]], [[Konstantin Khrenov]] and other Russian engineers. [[Alexander Lodygin]] and [[Pavel Yablochkov]] were pioneers of [[electric lighting]], and [[Mikhail Dolivo-Dobrovolsky]] invented and introduced the first [[three-phase electric power]] systems, widely used today. [[Oleg Losev]] is often considered as the inventor of the [[Light-emitting diode|light-emitting diode (LED)]]
 
===Medicine===
{{main|List of Russian physicians}}
 
===Economic theory and social sciences===
 
===Earth sciences===
{{main|List of Russian Earth scientists}}
[[Vasily Dokuchaev]] (1845–1902) is credited with laying the foundations of soil science.
 
[[Vladimir Vernadsky]] (1863–1945)  is considered one of the founders of geochemistry, biogeochemistry, and of radiogeology and deeply developed the concepts of [[biosphere]] and [[noosphere]].
 
===Linguistics===
{{main|List of Russian linguists}}
 
==Technology==
{{main|List of Russian inventors|Timeline of Russian inventions}}
 
===Aviation===
[[File:Sukhoi Superjet 100 prototype.jpg|thumb|220px|left|The [[Sukhoi Superjet 100]] is the latest civilian product of the [[Russian aircraft industry]].]]
{{main|Aircraft industry of Russia|United Aircraft Corporation|List of Russian aerospace engineers}}
The history of the Russian aircraft engineering originated from a pioneer of aviation [[Alexander Mozhaysky]] who made his first attempt to fly by his own design aircraft ([[monoplane]]) as early as in 1881. In the 20th century a number of prominent Soviet aerospace engineers, inspired by the fundamental works of [[Nikolay Yegorovich Zhukovsky|Nikolai Zhukovsky]], [[Sergei Chaplygin]] etc. supervised the creation of many dozens of models of military and civilian aircraft and founded a number of ''KBs'' (''Construction Bureaus'') that now constitute the bulk of Russian [[United Aircraft Corporation]]. A number of individual inventors also made important contributions to aircraft technology, such as [[Gleb Kotelnikov]] who invented the [[knapsack]] [[parachute]], or [[Evgeniy Chertovsky]] who introduced the [[pressure suit]]. Theoretical works by [[Petr Ufimtsev]] played a critical role in development of [[stealth technology]].
 
Famous Russian airplanes include the first [[supersonic]] passenger jet [[Tupolev Tu-144]] by [[Alexei Tupolev]], [[MiG|MiG fighter aircraft]] series by [[Artem Mikoyan]] and [[Mikhail Gurevich (aircraft designer)|Mikhail Gurevich]], and [[Sukhoi|Su]] series by [[Pavel Sukhoi]] and his followers. The [[Mikoyan-Gurevich MiG-15|MiG-15]] is the jet aircraft with the world's [[List of most produced aircraft|highest production]] in history, while [[Mikoyan-Gurevich MiG-21|MiG-21]] is the most produced [[supersonic aircraft]]. Since World War II era [[Ilyushin Il-2]] bomber remains the [[List of most produced aircraft|most produced military aircraft in history]]. [[Polikarpov Po-2]] ''Kukuruznik'' is the world's most produced [[biplane]], and [[Mil Mi-8]] is the most produced  [[helicopter]].
 
Aircraft manufacturing is one of the most science-intensive hi-tech sectors of modern Russian economy and employs the largest number of skilled personnel. The production and value of the military aircraft branch far outstrips other [[Defense industry of Russia|defense industry]] sectors, and aircraft products make up more than half of the country's arms exports.<ref name="manturov">{{cite journal|url=http://dlib.eastview.com/browse/doc/20573392|title=Prospects for the Domestic Aircraft Industry|last1=Manturov|first1=Denis|journal=Military Parade|issue=4|year=2009|pages=8–9}}</ref> The Russian aircraft industry offers a portfolio of internationally competitive military aircraft, while new projects such as the [[Sukhoi Superjet 100]] are hoped to revive the fortunes of the civilian aircraft segment. In 2009, companies belonging to the [[United Aircraft Corporation]] delivered 95 new fixed-wing aircraft to its customers, including 15 civilian models. In addition, the industry produced over 141 helicopters.
 
=== Space technology ===
{{main|Soviet space program|Russian Federal Space Agency|Space industry of Russia}}
[[File:Soyuz TMA-2 launch.jpg|thumb|180px|Soyuz TMA-2 launch.jpg|[[Soyuz TMA-2]] is launched from [[Baikonur]], [[Kazakhstan]] carrying one of the first resident crews to the [[International Space Station]].]]
The greatest Russian successes are in the field of [[space technology]] and [[space exploration]]. [[Konstantin Tsiolkovsky]] was the father of theoretical astronautics.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.aiaa.org/index.cfm |title=American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics – Home Page |publisher=Aiaa.org |date= |accessdate=2 Jan 2010}}</ref> His works had inspired leading [[Soviet Union|Soviet]] rocket engineers such as [[Sergey Korolyov]], [[Valentin Glushko]] and many others that contributed to the success of the [[Soviet space program]] at early stages of the [[Space Race]] and beyond.
 
In 1957 the first Earth-orbiting artificial [[satellite]], ''[[Sputnik 1]]'', was launched; in 1961 on [[Cosmonautics Day|12 April]] the first human trip into space was successfully made by [[Yury Gagarin]]; and many other Soviet and Russian [[Timeline of space exploration|space exploration records]] ensued, including the first [[spacewalk]] performed by [[Alexey Leonov]], the first space exploration [[rover (space exploration)|rover]] ''[[Lunokhod programme|Lunokhod-1]]'' and the first [[space station]] ''[[Salyut program|Salyut 1]]''. Nowadays Russia is the largest satellite launcher<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.russianspaceweb.com/2009.html |title=Russian space program in 2009: plans and reality |publisher=Russianspaceweb.com |date= |accessdate=27 Apr 2010}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|url=http://www.economist.com/daily/chartgallery/displayStory.cfm?story_id=14256807&source=features_box4 |title=Premium content |work=The Economist  |date=19 Aug 2009 |accessdate=2 Jan 2010}}</ref> and the only provider of transport for [[space tourism]] services.
 
===Military===
 
{{main|Defence industry of Russia|Rosoboronexport|List of Russian weaponry makers}}
Famous Russian battle tanks include [[T-34]], the best middle tank design of World War II,<ref>George Parada (n.d.), “[http://www.achtungpanzer.com/t34.htm Panzerkampfwagen T-34(r)]” at ''Achtung Panzer!'' website, retrieved on 17 November 2008.</ref> and further tanks of T-series, including the most produced tank in history, [[T-54/55]],<ref>Halberstadt, Hans Inside the Great Tanks The Crowood Press Ltd. Wiltshire, England 1997 94–96 ISBN 1-86126-270-1<br />"The T-54/T-55 series is the hands down, all time most popular tank in history."</ref> the first fully [[gas turbine]] tank [[T-80]] and the most modern Russian tank [[T-90]]. The [[AK-47]] and [[AK-74]] by [[Mikhail Kalashnikov]] constitute the most widely used type of [[assault rifle]] throughout the world—so much so that more AK-type rifles have been manufactured than all other assault rifles combined.<ref name="poyer">Poyer, Joe. ''The AK-47 and AK-74 Kalashnikov Rifles and Their Variations''. North Cape Publications. 2004.</ref><ref name="weaponomics">{{cite web| title = Weaponomics: The Economics of Small Arms | url = http://www.csae.ox.ac.uk/workingpapers/pdfs/2006-13text.pdf }}</ref> With these and other weapons Russia for a long time has been among the world's [[Arms industry#World's largest arms exporters|top suppliers of arms]], accounting for around 30% of worldwide weapons sales<ref name="abc.net.au">{{cite web|title=US drives world military spending to record high|publisher=Australian Broadcasting Corporation|url=http://www.abc.net.au/news/newsitems/200606/s1661277.htm|accessdate=27 Dec 2007}}</ref> and exporting weapons to about 80 countries.<ref name="RIA Novosti">{{cite web|title=Russia arms exports could exceed $7 bln in 2007&nbsp;– Ivanov|publisher=RIA Novosti|accessdate=27 Jan 2008|url=http://en.rian.ru/russia/20071224/93979601.html}}</ref>
 
The [[defence industry of Russia]] is a strategically important sector and a large employer. Russia is the second largest conventional arms exporter after the United States, with $8 billions' worth of exports in 2008. The most popular types of weaponry bought from Russia are [[Sukhoi]] and [[MiG]] fighters, [[air defense]] systems, [[helicopter]]s, [[tank]]s, [[armored personnel carriers]] and [[infantry fighting vehicle]]s.<ref name="rian_2008exports">{{cite news|url=http://en.rian.ru/russia/20081216/118889555.html|title=Russian arms exports exceed $8 bln in 2008|date=2008-12-16|publisher=RIA Novosti|accessdate=2010-01-06}}</ref> Aviation products make up about half of the country's arms exports.<ref name="rian_20090615">{{cite news|url=http://en.rian.ru/world/20090615/155258234.html|title=Volume of Russian arms exports in 2009 to exceed $8 bln - Fomin|date=2009-06-15|publisher=RIA Novosti|accessdate=2010-01-06}}</ref> One of the industry's recent technological achievements was the maiden flight of the fifth generation fighter [[PAK FA]], which broke the [[United States]]' complete monopoly on development and production of fifth generation jets. The [[Moscow Defense Brief]] journal hailed the occasion as a major coup for Russia's defence industry, saying that:
:''"while not America’s equal militarily, Russia is still a solid second in terms of defense technology, outranking both Western Europe and China and punching well above its economic weight."''<ref name="mdb2010_1">{{cite journal|title=Russia Joins the Fifth-Gen Game|journal=Moscow Defense Brief|volume=1|issue=19|year=2010}}</ref>
 
===Computing===
{{main|List of Russian IT developers}}
[[Sergei Alekseyevich Lebedev|Sergei Lebedev]] developed one of the first universally programmable computers in continental Europe in 1950, [[MESM]]. The first [[ternary computer]] [[Setun]] was developed by [[Nikolay Brusentsov]], together with [[Sergei Sobolev]] in 1958.
 
=== Automotive industry ===
{{main|Automotive industry in Russia}}
[[Lada Niva|Niva]] was one of the first off-road vehicles gaining international success and is still exported to Canada, South America and Europe.
[[KAMAZ]] trucks are exported to many areas of the world including Eastern Europe, Latin America, China, the Middle East, and North Africa and are persistent winners (ten times) of the famous [[Dakar Rally]].
 
===Railroads===
[[Ivan Polzunov]] is credited with creation of the first steam engine in Russia and the first two-cylinder engine in the world.
 
===Naval===
{{main|Shipbuilding in Russia|List of Russian naval engineers}}
 
===Nuclear===
{{main|Nuclear power in Russia|Rosatom}}
The creation of the first [[nuclear power plant]] along with the first [[nuclear reactor technology|nuclear reactors]] for [[submarine]]s and [[Nuclear marine propulsion|surface ships]] was directed by [[Igor Kurchatov]]. [[Nuclear Ship|NS]] ''[[Lenin (nuclear icebreaker)|Lenin]]'' was the world's first [[nuclear marine propulsion|nuclear-powered surface ship]] as well as the first [[List of civilian nuclear ships|nuclear-powered civilian vessel]], and [[Nuclear Ship|NS]] ''[[Arktika (icebreaker)|Arktika]]'' became the first surface ship to reach the [[North Pole]].
 
==See also==
* [[Science and technology in the Soviet Union]]
* [[Timeline of Russian inventions and technology records]]
* [[List of Russian inventors]]
* [[List of Russian inventions]]
* [[List of Russian scientists]]
 
==References==
{{reflist|2}}
 
{{Russia topics}}
{{Economy of Russia|state=expanded}}
{{Europe topic|Science and technology in}}
{{Asia topic|Science and technology in}}
 
[[Category:Science and technology in Russia| ]]

Revision as of 18:46, 12 February 2013

Shukhov Tower in Moscow.

Science and technology in Russia developed rapidly since the Age of Enlightenment, when Peter the Great founded the Russian Academy of Sciences and Saint Petersburg State University and polymath Mikhail Lomonosov founded the Moscow State University, establishing a strong native tradition in learning and innovation.

In the 19th and 20th centuries the country produced a large number of notable scientists, making important contributions into physics, astronomy, mathematics, computing, chemistry, biology, geology and geography. Russian inventors and engineers excelled in such areas as electrical engineering, shipbuilding, aerospace, weaponry, communications, IT, nuclear technology and space technology.

Recently, the crisis of 1990-s led to the drastic reduction of the state support for science and technology. Many Russian scientists and university graduates went to Europe or United States in the so-called brain drain migration. In 2000-s, on the wave of a new economic boom, the situation has improved, and the government launched a campaign aimed into modernisation and innovation. Current priorities for the country's technological development include energy efficiency, IT (including both common products and the products combined with space technology), nuclear energy and pharmaceuticals.[1]

History

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Mikhail Lomonosov, Russian polymath scientist, inventor, poet and artist, the founder of Moscow State University.

At the start of the 18th century the reforms of Peter the Great (the founder of Russian Academy of Sciences and Saint Petersburg State University) and the work of such champions as polymath Mikhail Lomonosov (the founder of Moscow State University) gave a great boost for development of science and innovation in Russia.

Many famous Russian scientists and inventors were émigrés, like Igor Sikorsky, credited with invention of first helicopters, and Vladimir Zworykin, often called the father of TV, chemist Ilya Prigogine, noted for his work on dissipative structures and complex systems (1977 Nobel Prize for Chemistry), economists Simon Kuznets (1971 Nobel Prize) and Wassily Leontief (1973 Nobel Prize), physicist Georgiy Gamov (an author of the Big Bang theory), engineer Alexander M. Poniatoff, who created the world's first rotary head recorder and social scientist Pitirim Sorokin who played an important role in development of sociology in the USA. Many foreigners worked in Russia for a long time, like Leonhard Euler and Alfred Nobel.

With many technological achievements in the 19th and 20th centuries, however, since the time of Brezhnev stagnation Russia was lagging significantly behind the West in a number of technologies, especially those concerning energy conservation and consumer goods production. The crisis of 1990-s led to the drastic reduction of the state support for science. Many Russian scientists and university graduates left Russia for Europe or United States; this migration is known as a brain drain.

In 2000-s, on the wave of a new economic boom, the situation in the Russian science and technology has improved, and the government launched a campaign aimed at modernisation and innovation. Russian President Dmitry Medvedev formulated top 5 priorities for the country's technological development: energy efficiency, IT (including both common products and the products combined with space technology), nuclear energy and pharmaceuticals.[1] Some progress already has been achieved, with Russia's having nearly completed GLONASS, the only global satellite navigation system apart from American GPS, and Russia's being the only country constructing mobile nuclear plants.

Science and education

Mining Engineer (Excluding Oil ) Truman from Alma, loves to spend time knotting, largest property developers in singapore developers in singapore and stamp collecting. Recently had a family visit to Urnes Stave Church.

Physics

Mining Engineer (Excluding Oil ) Truman from Alma, loves to spend time knotting, largest property developers in singapore developers in singapore and stamp collecting. Recently had a family visit to Urnes Stave Church. The Russian physics school began to develop after Lomonosov who proposed the law of conservation of matter preceding the energy conservation law. During the period of origin of electrodynamics Vasily Petrov discovered the electric arc effect in 1802 and Heinrich Lenz discovered an important law named in his honor. Nikolay Umov discovered a fundamental concept of Umov-Poynting vector and was the first scientist to indicate interrelation between mass and energy proposing the formula as early as in 1873.[2] Alexander Popov was among the inventors of radio.

Russian/Soviet physics in the 20th century was one of leading ones in the world. Alexander Friedmann was the first scientist to propose an expanding universe model (1922) which greatly influenced cosmology in the 20th century. Dmitri Ivanenko was the first to propose the proton-neutron model of atomic nuclei (1932) and nuclear shell model (1932). Georgiy Gamov proposed the theory of the alpha decay of a nucleus via tunnelling (1928) and was an author of Big Bang theory. Nikolay Bogolyubov suggested a triplet quark model, introduced a new quantum degree of freedom (later called as color charge) for quarks[3] and formulated a microscopic theory of superconductivity.[4] Lev Landau made fundamental contributions to many areas of theoretical physics (Nobel Prize in Physics,1962). Nikolai Basov and Alexander Prokhorov were co-inventors of lasers and masers (Nobel Prize in Physics,1964). Igor Tamm, Andrei Sakharov and Lev Artsimovich developed the idea of tokamak for controlled nuclear fusion and created its first prototype, which finally led to the modern ITER project. Yevgeny Zavoisky discovered electron paramagnetic resonance playing important role in studying chemical species. Zhores Alferov greatly contributed to the creation of modern heterostructure physics and electronics which find many applications in modern life: from CD & DVD players to fiber optic transceivers (Noble Prize in Physics, 2000). In 2010 two Russian-born and -educated physics Konstantin Novoselov and Andre Geim were awarded with Noble Prize in Physics for their works in graphene, a material which may have important applications in electronics, aviation and medicine.

Kunstkamera building, the first headquarters of the Russian Academy of Sciences in Saint Petersburg.

A number of achievements of Russian/Soviet scientists remained unknown to general public due to security considerations or bureaucratic obstacles. E.g. the first design of magnetic resonance imaging was proposed by Vladislav Ivanov in 1960 but was not realized at that time.

Mathematics

Mining Engineer (Excluding Oil ) Truman from Alma, loves to spend time knotting, largest property developers in singapore developers in singapore and stamp collecting. Recently had a family visit to Urnes Stave Church. In mathematics Nikolai Lobachevsky, a Copernicus of Geometry, founded the non-Euclidean geometry playing important role in modern physics. In 19th century the international recognition was also gained by such mathematicians as Mikhail Ostrogradsky and Sofia Kovalevskaya who was the first major Russian female mathematician, responsible for important original contributions to analysis, differential equations and mechanics, and the first woman appointed to a full professorship in Northern Europe. Yevgraf Fyodorov was a founder of the modern structural crystallography (Fedorov group). At least after such prominent scientist as Chebyshev the Russian mathematical school became one of the most influential ones in the world and was represented by numerous figures greatly contributing to different fields of mathematics, physics and computing sciences.[5] Chebyshev's students included Aleksandr Lyapunov who founded the modern stability theory (lately deeply developed by such scientists as Aleksandr Andronov and Vladimir Arnold), and Andrey Markov who developed the theory of Markov chains, playing a central role in information sciences and modern applied mathematics. In the beginning of 20th century Nikolai Zhukovsky and Sergei Chaplygin were among founding fathers of the modern aero- and hydrodynamics and Vladimir Kotelnikov was a pioneer in information theory by independently proposing the fundamental sampling theorem. Andrei Kolmogorov, a leading mathematician of the 20th century, developed the foundation of the modern theory of probability and made other key contributions to broadest range of mathematical branches, such as turbulence, mathematical logic, topology, differential equations, set theory, automata theory, information theory, theory of algorithms, dynamical systems, stochastic processes, theory of integration, classical mechanics, mathematical linguistics, mathematical biology and applied sciences. Israel Gelfand is credited with many important discoveries in algebra, topology, mathematical physics and applied sciences. Sergei Sobolev developed the theory of Sobolev space which played an extremely important role in formation of modern mathematical views and introduced the notion of distributions generalizing ideas of Newton and Leibniz.

Such mathematicians as Lev Pontryagin, who made major contributions to topology and functional analysis and a founder of the modern optimal control theory, Andrey Tychonoff, who was the author of the "central theorem"[6] of the general topology, Pavel Alexandrov, a very important figure in topology of the 20th century, and many others made fundamental contributions to different fields of mathematics. Nine Soviet/Russian mathematicians were awarded with Fields Medal, a most prestigious award in mathematics. Recently Grigori Perelman was offered the first ever Clay Millennium Prize Problems award for his final proof of the Poincaré conjecture in 2002.[7]

Astronomy

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Chemistry

Mining Engineer (Excluding Oil ) Truman from Alma, loves to spend time knotting, largest property developers in singapore developers in singapore and stamp collecting. Recently had a family visit to Urnes Stave Church.

Lomonosov was the first Russian chemist, among others he was the founder of the science of glass.

A sculpture in honor of Dmitry Mendeleev and his Periodic table in Slovakia.

Dmitry Mendeleev invented the Periodic table, that is the main framework of the modern chemistry, while Aleksandr Butlerov was one of the creators of the theory of chemical structure, playing a central role in organic chemistry. Sergei Lebedev invented the first commercially viable and mass-produced type of synthetic rubber (polybutadiene synthetic rubber). Nikolay Semyonov made major contributions to explanation of the mechanism of chemical transformation (1956 Nobel Prize in Chemistry).

Biology

Mining Engineer (Excluding Oil ) Truman from Alma, loves to spend time knotting, largest property developers in singapore developers in singapore and stamp collecting. Recently had a family visit to Urnes Stave Church. In biology Dmitry Ivanovsky was the first scientist to discover viruses (1892).[8] Ivan Pavlov is widely known for first describing the phenomenon of classical conditioning and using it for studying brain functions. Ilya Mechnikov was a pioneer in investigations of the immune system (1908, Nobel Prize in Medicine). Alexander A. Maximow introduced the notion of stem cells. Alexander Oparin was a founder of the modern theory of origin of life. Nikolai Koltsov, a founder of molecular biology, proposed the idea of the molecular mechanism of heredity as early as in 1927 stating that inherited traits would be inherited via a "giant hereditary molecule" which would be made up of "two mirror strands that would replicate in a semi-conservative fashion using each strand as a template". Alexey Olovnikov suggested telomere hypothesis of aging which greatly contributed to the theory of aging and later was awarded with Nobel Prize (not shared by Olovnikov).

Electrical engineering

Mining Engineer (Excluding Oil ) Truman from Alma, loves to spend time knotting, largest property developers in singapore developers in singapore and stamp collecting. Recently had a family visit to Urnes Stave Church. Nikolay Benardos introduced the arc welding, further developed by Nikolay Slavyanov, Konstantin Khrenov and other Russian engineers. Alexander Lodygin and Pavel Yablochkov were pioneers of electric lighting, and Mikhail Dolivo-Dobrovolsky invented and introduced the first three-phase electric power systems, widely used today. Oleg Losev is often considered as the inventor of the light-emitting diode (LED)

Medicine

Mining Engineer (Excluding Oil ) Truman from Alma, loves to spend time knotting, largest property developers in singapore developers in singapore and stamp collecting. Recently had a family visit to Urnes Stave Church.

Economic theory and social sciences

Earth sciences

Mining Engineer (Excluding Oil ) Truman from Alma, loves to spend time knotting, largest property developers in singapore developers in singapore and stamp collecting. Recently had a family visit to Urnes Stave Church. Vasily Dokuchaev (1845–1902) is credited with laying the foundations of soil science.

Vladimir Vernadsky (1863–1945) is considered one of the founders of geochemistry, biogeochemistry, and of radiogeology and deeply developed the concepts of biosphere and noosphere.

Linguistics

Mining Engineer (Excluding Oil ) Truman from Alma, loves to spend time knotting, largest property developers in singapore developers in singapore and stamp collecting. Recently had a family visit to Urnes Stave Church.

Technology

Mining Engineer (Excluding Oil ) Truman from Alma, loves to spend time knotting, largest property developers in singapore developers in singapore and stamp collecting. Recently had a family visit to Urnes Stave Church.

Aviation

The Sukhoi Superjet 100 is the latest civilian product of the Russian aircraft industry.

Mining Engineer (Excluding Oil ) Truman from Alma, loves to spend time knotting, largest property developers in singapore developers in singapore and stamp collecting. Recently had a family visit to Urnes Stave Church. The history of the Russian aircraft engineering originated from a pioneer of aviation Alexander Mozhaysky who made his first attempt to fly by his own design aircraft (monoplane) as early as in 1881. In the 20th century a number of prominent Soviet aerospace engineers, inspired by the fundamental works of Nikolai Zhukovsky, Sergei Chaplygin etc. supervised the creation of many dozens of models of military and civilian aircraft and founded a number of KBs (Construction Bureaus) that now constitute the bulk of Russian United Aircraft Corporation. A number of individual inventors also made important contributions to aircraft technology, such as Gleb Kotelnikov who invented the knapsack parachute, or Evgeniy Chertovsky who introduced the pressure suit. Theoretical works by Petr Ufimtsev played a critical role in development of stealth technology.

Famous Russian airplanes include the first supersonic passenger jet Tupolev Tu-144 by Alexei Tupolev, MiG fighter aircraft series by Artem Mikoyan and Mikhail Gurevich, and Su series by Pavel Sukhoi and his followers. The MiG-15 is the jet aircraft with the world's highest production in history, while MiG-21 is the most produced supersonic aircraft. Since World War II era Ilyushin Il-2 bomber remains the most produced military aircraft in history. Polikarpov Po-2 Kukuruznik is the world's most produced biplane, and Mil Mi-8 is the most produced helicopter.

Aircraft manufacturing is one of the most science-intensive hi-tech sectors of modern Russian economy and employs the largest number of skilled personnel. The production and value of the military aircraft branch far outstrips other defense industry sectors, and aircraft products make up more than half of the country's arms exports.[9] The Russian aircraft industry offers a portfolio of internationally competitive military aircraft, while new projects such as the Sukhoi Superjet 100 are hoped to revive the fortunes of the civilian aircraft segment. In 2009, companies belonging to the United Aircraft Corporation delivered 95 new fixed-wing aircraft to its customers, including 15 civilian models. In addition, the industry produced over 141 helicopters.

Space technology

Mining Engineer (Excluding Oil ) Truman from Alma, loves to spend time knotting, largest property developers in singapore developers in singapore and stamp collecting. Recently had a family visit to Urnes Stave Church.

Soyuz TMA-2 is launched from Baikonur, Kazakhstan carrying one of the first resident crews to the International Space Station.

The greatest Russian successes are in the field of space technology and space exploration. Konstantin Tsiolkovsky was the father of theoretical astronautics.[10] His works had inspired leading Soviet rocket engineers such as Sergey Korolyov, Valentin Glushko and many others that contributed to the success of the Soviet space program at early stages of the Space Race and beyond.

In 1957 the first Earth-orbiting artificial satellite, Sputnik 1, was launched; in 1961 on 12 April the first human trip into space was successfully made by Yury Gagarin; and many other Soviet and Russian space exploration records ensued, including the first spacewalk performed by Alexey Leonov, the first space exploration rover Lunokhod-1 and the first space station Salyut 1. Nowadays Russia is the largest satellite launcher[11][12] and the only provider of transport for space tourism services.

Military

Mining Engineer (Excluding Oil ) Truman from Alma, loves to spend time knotting, largest property developers in singapore developers in singapore and stamp collecting. Recently had a family visit to Urnes Stave Church. Famous Russian battle tanks include T-34, the best middle tank design of World War II,[13] and further tanks of T-series, including the most produced tank in history, T-54/55,[14] the first fully gas turbine tank T-80 and the most modern Russian tank T-90. The AK-47 and AK-74 by Mikhail Kalashnikov constitute the most widely used type of assault rifle throughout the world—so much so that more AK-type rifles have been manufactured than all other assault rifles combined.[15][16] With these and other weapons Russia for a long time has been among the world's top suppliers of arms, accounting for around 30% of worldwide weapons sales[17] and exporting weapons to about 80 countries.[18]

The defence industry of Russia is a strategically important sector and a large employer. Russia is the second largest conventional arms exporter after the United States, with $8 billions' worth of exports in 2008. The most popular types of weaponry bought from Russia are Sukhoi and MiG fighters, air defense systems, helicopters, tanks, armored personnel carriers and infantry fighting vehicles.[19] Aviation products make up about half of the country's arms exports.[20] One of the industry's recent technological achievements was the maiden flight of the fifth generation fighter PAK FA, which broke the United States' complete monopoly on development and production of fifth generation jets. The Moscow Defense Brief journal hailed the occasion as a major coup for Russia's defence industry, saying that:

"while not America’s equal militarily, Russia is still a solid second in terms of defense technology, outranking both Western Europe and China and punching well above its economic weight."[21]

Computing

Mining Engineer (Excluding Oil ) Truman from Alma, loves to spend time knotting, largest property developers in singapore developers in singapore and stamp collecting. Recently had a family visit to Urnes Stave Church. Sergei Lebedev developed one of the first universally programmable computers in continental Europe in 1950, MESM. The first ternary computer Setun was developed by Nikolay Brusentsov, together with Sergei Sobolev in 1958.

Automotive industry

Mining Engineer (Excluding Oil ) Truman from Alma, loves to spend time knotting, largest property developers in singapore developers in singapore and stamp collecting. Recently had a family visit to Urnes Stave Church. Niva was one of the first off-road vehicles gaining international success and is still exported to Canada, South America and Europe. KAMAZ trucks are exported to many areas of the world including Eastern Europe, Latin America, China, the Middle East, and North Africa and are persistent winners (ten times) of the famous Dakar Rally.

Railroads

Ivan Polzunov is credited with creation of the first steam engine in Russia and the first two-cylinder engine in the world.

Naval

Mining Engineer (Excluding Oil ) Truman from Alma, loves to spend time knotting, largest property developers in singapore developers in singapore and stamp collecting. Recently had a family visit to Urnes Stave Church.

Nuclear

Mining Engineer (Excluding Oil ) Truman from Alma, loves to spend time knotting, largest property developers in singapore developers in singapore and stamp collecting. Recently had a family visit to Urnes Stave Church. The creation of the first nuclear power plant along with the first nuclear reactors for submarines and surface ships was directed by Igor Kurchatov. NS Lenin was the world's first nuclear-powered surface ship as well as the first nuclear-powered civilian vessel, and NS Arktika became the first surface ship to reach the North Pole.

See also

References

43 year old Petroleum Engineer Harry from Deep River, usually spends time with hobbies and interests like renting movies, property developers in singapore new condominium and vehicle racing. Constantly enjoys going to destinations like Camino Real de Tierra Adentro.

Template:Russia topics Template:Economy of Russia Template:Europe topic Template:Asia topic

  1. ↑ 1.0 1.1 Rian.ru RIA Novosti: Medvedev outlines priorities for Russian economy's modernization
  2. ↑ Умов Н. А. Избранные сочинения. М. — Л., 1950.
  3. ↑ N. Bogolubov, B. Struminsky, A. Tavkhelidze. On composite models in the theory of elementary particles. JINR Preprint D-1968, Dubna 1965.
  4. ↑ One of the biggest reasons investing in a Singapore new launch is an effective things is as a result of it is doable to be lent massive quantities of money at very low interest rates that you should utilize to purchase it. Then, if property values continue to go up, then you'll get a really high return on funding (ROI). Simply make sure you purchase one of the higher properties, reminiscent of the ones at Fernvale the Riverbank or any Singapore landed property Get Earnings by means of Renting

    In its statement, the singapore property listing - website link, government claimed that the majority citizens buying their first residence won't be hurt by the new measures. Some concessions can even be prolonged to chose teams of consumers, similar to married couples with a minimum of one Singaporean partner who are purchasing their second property so long as they intend to promote their first residential property. Lower the LTV limit on housing loans granted by monetary establishments regulated by MAS from 70% to 60% for property purchasers who are individuals with a number of outstanding housing loans on the time of the brand new housing purchase. Singapore Property Measures - 30 August 2010 The most popular seek for the number of bedrooms in Singapore is 4, followed by 2 and three. Lush Acres EC @ Sengkang

    Discover out more about real estate funding in the area, together with info on international funding incentives and property possession. Many Singaporeans have been investing in property across the causeway in recent years, attracted by comparatively low prices. However, those who need to exit their investments quickly are likely to face significant challenges when trying to sell their property – and could finally be stuck with a property they can't sell. Career improvement programmes, in-house valuation, auctions and administrative help, venture advertising and marketing, skilled talks and traisning are continuously planned for the sales associates to help them obtain better outcomes for his or her shoppers while at Knight Frank Singapore. No change Present Rules

    Extending the tax exemption would help. The exemption, which may be as a lot as $2 million per family, covers individuals who negotiate a principal reduction on their existing mortgage, sell their house short (i.e., for lower than the excellent loans), or take part in a foreclosure course of. An extension of theexemption would seem like a common-sense means to assist stabilize the housing market, but the political turmoil around the fiscal-cliff negotiations means widespread sense could not win out. Home Minority Chief Nancy Pelosi (D-Calif.) believes that the mortgage relief provision will be on the table during the grand-cut price talks, in response to communications director Nadeam Elshami. Buying or promoting of blue mild bulbs is unlawful.

    A vendor's stamp duty has been launched on industrial property for the primary time, at rates ranging from 5 per cent to 15 per cent. The Authorities might be trying to reassure the market that they aren't in opposition to foreigners and PRs investing in Singapore's property market. They imposed these measures because of extenuating components available in the market." The sale of new dual-key EC models will even be restricted to multi-generational households only. The models have two separate entrances, permitting grandparents, for example, to dwell separately. The vendor's stamp obligation takes effect right this moment and applies to industrial property and plots which might be offered inside three years of the date of buy. JLL named Best Performing Property Brand for second year running

    The data offered is for normal info purposes only and isn't supposed to be personalised investment or monetary advice. Motley Fool Singapore contributor Stanley Lim would not personal shares in any corporations talked about. Singapore private home costs increased by 1.eight% within the fourth quarter of 2012, up from 0.6% within the earlier quarter. Resale prices of government-built HDB residences which are usually bought by Singaporeans, elevated by 2.5%, quarter on quarter, the quickest acquire in five quarters. And industrial property, prices are actually double the levels of three years ago. No withholding tax in the event you sell your property. All your local information regarding vital HDB policies, condominium launches, land growth, commercial property and more

    There are various methods to go about discovering the precise property. Some local newspapers (together with the Straits Instances ) have categorised property sections and many local property brokers have websites. Now there are some specifics to consider when buying a 'new launch' rental. Intended use of the unit Every sale begins with 10 p.c low cost for finish of season sale; changes to 20 % discount storewide; follows by additional reduction of fiftyand ends with last discount of 70 % or extra. Typically there is even a warehouse sale or transferring out sale with huge mark-down of costs for stock clearance. Deborah Regulation from Expat Realtor shares her property market update, plus prime rental residences and houses at the moment available to lease Esparina EC @ Sengkang
  5. ↑ Template:Cite web
  6. ↑ Template:Cite web
  7. ↑ Template:Cite web
  8. ↑ 20 year-old Real Estate Agent Rusty from Saint-Paul, has hobbies and interests which includes monopoly, property developers in singapore and poker. Will soon undertake a contiki trip that may include going to the Lower Valley of the Omo.

    My blog: http://www.primaboinca.com/view_profile.php?userid=5889534
  9. ↑ One of the biggest reasons investing in a Singapore new launch is an effective things is as a result of it is doable to be lent massive quantities of money at very low interest rates that you should utilize to purchase it. Then, if property values continue to go up, then you'll get a really high return on funding (ROI). Simply make sure you purchase one of the higher properties, reminiscent of the ones at Fernvale the Riverbank or any Singapore landed property Get Earnings by means of Renting

    In its statement, the singapore property listing - website link, government claimed that the majority citizens buying their first residence won't be hurt by the new measures. Some concessions can even be prolonged to chose teams of consumers, similar to married couples with a minimum of one Singaporean partner who are purchasing their second property so long as they intend to promote their first residential property. Lower the LTV limit on housing loans granted by monetary establishments regulated by MAS from 70% to 60% for property purchasers who are individuals with a number of outstanding housing loans on the time of the brand new housing purchase. Singapore Property Measures - 30 August 2010 The most popular seek for the number of bedrooms in Singapore is 4, followed by 2 and three. Lush Acres EC @ Sengkang

    Discover out more about real estate funding in the area, together with info on international funding incentives and property possession. Many Singaporeans have been investing in property across the causeway in recent years, attracted by comparatively low prices. However, those who need to exit their investments quickly are likely to face significant challenges when trying to sell their property – and could finally be stuck with a property they can't sell. Career improvement programmes, in-house valuation, auctions and administrative help, venture advertising and marketing, skilled talks and traisning are continuously planned for the sales associates to help them obtain better outcomes for his or her shoppers while at Knight Frank Singapore. No change Present Rules

    Extending the tax exemption would help. The exemption, which may be as a lot as $2 million per family, covers individuals who negotiate a principal reduction on their existing mortgage, sell their house short (i.e., for lower than the excellent loans), or take part in a foreclosure course of. An extension of theexemption would seem like a common-sense means to assist stabilize the housing market, but the political turmoil around the fiscal-cliff negotiations means widespread sense could not win out. Home Minority Chief Nancy Pelosi (D-Calif.) believes that the mortgage relief provision will be on the table during the grand-cut price talks, in response to communications director Nadeam Elshami. Buying or promoting of blue mild bulbs is unlawful.

    A vendor's stamp duty has been launched on industrial property for the primary time, at rates ranging from 5 per cent to 15 per cent. The Authorities might be trying to reassure the market that they aren't in opposition to foreigners and PRs investing in Singapore's property market. They imposed these measures because of extenuating components available in the market." The sale of new dual-key EC models will even be restricted to multi-generational households only. The models have two separate entrances, permitting grandparents, for example, to dwell separately. The vendor's stamp obligation takes effect right this moment and applies to industrial property and plots which might be offered inside three years of the date of buy. JLL named Best Performing Property Brand for second year running

    The data offered is for normal info purposes only and isn't supposed to be personalised investment or monetary advice. Motley Fool Singapore contributor Stanley Lim would not personal shares in any corporations talked about. Singapore private home costs increased by 1.eight% within the fourth quarter of 2012, up from 0.6% within the earlier quarter. Resale prices of government-built HDB residences which are usually bought by Singaporeans, elevated by 2.5%, quarter on quarter, the quickest acquire in five quarters. And industrial property, prices are actually double the levels of three years ago. No withholding tax in the event you sell your property. All your local information regarding vital HDB policies, condominium launches, land growth, commercial property and more

    There are various methods to go about discovering the precise property. Some local newspapers (together with the Straits Instances ) have categorised property sections and many local property brokers have websites. Now there are some specifics to consider when buying a 'new launch' rental. Intended use of the unit Every sale begins with 10 p.c low cost for finish of season sale; changes to 20 % discount storewide; follows by additional reduction of fiftyand ends with last discount of 70 % or extra. Typically there is even a warehouse sale or transferring out sale with huge mark-down of costs for stock clearance. Deborah Regulation from Expat Realtor shares her property market update, plus prime rental residences and houses at the moment available to lease Esparina EC @ Sengkang
  10. ↑ Template:Cite web
  11. ↑ Template:Cite web
  12. ↑ Template:Cite news
  13. ↑ George Parada (n.d.), “Panzerkampfwagen T-34(r)” at Achtung Panzer! website, retrieved on 17 November 2008.
  14. ↑ Halberstadt, Hans Inside the Great Tanks The Crowood Press Ltd. Wiltshire, England 1997 94–96 ISBN 1-86126-270-1
    "The T-54/T-55 series is the hands down, all time most popular tank in history."
  15. ↑ Poyer, Joe. The AK-47 and AK-74 Kalashnikov Rifles and Their Variations. North Cape Publications. 2004.
  16. ↑ Template:Cite web
  17. ↑ Template:Cite web
  18. ↑ Template:Cite web
  19. ↑ Template:Cite news
  20. ↑ Template:Cite news
  21. ↑ One of the biggest reasons investing in a Singapore new launch is an effective things is as a result of it is doable to be lent massive quantities of money at very low interest rates that you should utilize to purchase it. Then, if property values continue to go up, then you'll get a really high return on funding (ROI). Simply make sure you purchase one of the higher properties, reminiscent of the ones at Fernvale the Riverbank or any Singapore landed property Get Earnings by means of Renting

    In its statement, the singapore property listing - website link, government claimed that the majority citizens buying their first residence won't be hurt by the new measures. Some concessions can even be prolonged to chose teams of consumers, similar to married couples with a minimum of one Singaporean partner who are purchasing their second property so long as they intend to promote their first residential property. Lower the LTV limit on housing loans granted by monetary establishments regulated by MAS from 70% to 60% for property purchasers who are individuals with a number of outstanding housing loans on the time of the brand new housing purchase. Singapore Property Measures - 30 August 2010 The most popular seek for the number of bedrooms in Singapore is 4, followed by 2 and three. Lush Acres EC @ Sengkang

    Discover out more about real estate funding in the area, together with info on international funding incentives and property possession. Many Singaporeans have been investing in property across the causeway in recent years, attracted by comparatively low prices. However, those who need to exit their investments quickly are likely to face significant challenges when trying to sell their property – and could finally be stuck with a property they can't sell. Career improvement programmes, in-house valuation, auctions and administrative help, venture advertising and marketing, skilled talks and traisning are continuously planned for the sales associates to help them obtain better outcomes for his or her shoppers while at Knight Frank Singapore. No change Present Rules

    Extending the tax exemption would help. The exemption, which may be as a lot as $2 million per family, covers individuals who negotiate a principal reduction on their existing mortgage, sell their house short (i.e., for lower than the excellent loans), or take part in a foreclosure course of. An extension of theexemption would seem like a common-sense means to assist stabilize the housing market, but the political turmoil around the fiscal-cliff negotiations means widespread sense could not win out. Home Minority Chief Nancy Pelosi (D-Calif.) believes that the mortgage relief provision will be on the table during the grand-cut price talks, in response to communications director Nadeam Elshami. Buying or promoting of blue mild bulbs is unlawful.

    A vendor's stamp duty has been launched on industrial property for the primary time, at rates ranging from 5 per cent to 15 per cent. The Authorities might be trying to reassure the market that they aren't in opposition to foreigners and PRs investing in Singapore's property market. They imposed these measures because of extenuating components available in the market." The sale of new dual-key EC models will even be restricted to multi-generational households only. The models have two separate entrances, permitting grandparents, for example, to dwell separately. The vendor's stamp obligation takes effect right this moment and applies to industrial property and plots which might be offered inside three years of the date of buy. JLL named Best Performing Property Brand for second year running

    The data offered is for normal info purposes only and isn't supposed to be personalised investment or monetary advice. Motley Fool Singapore contributor Stanley Lim would not personal shares in any corporations talked about. Singapore private home costs increased by 1.eight% within the fourth quarter of 2012, up from 0.6% within the earlier quarter. Resale prices of government-built HDB residences which are usually bought by Singaporeans, elevated by 2.5%, quarter on quarter, the quickest acquire in five quarters. And industrial property, prices are actually double the levels of three years ago. No withholding tax in the event you sell your property. All your local information regarding vital HDB policies, condominium launches, land growth, commercial property and more

    There are various methods to go about discovering the precise property. Some local newspapers (together with the Straits Instances ) have categorised property sections and many local property brokers have websites. Now there are some specifics to consider when buying a 'new launch' rental. Intended use of the unit Every sale begins with 10 p.c low cost for finish of season sale; changes to 20 % discount storewide; follows by additional reduction of fiftyand ends with last discount of 70 % or extra. Typically there is even a warehouse sale or transferring out sale with huge mark-down of costs for stock clearance. Deborah Regulation from Expat Realtor shares her property market update, plus prime rental residences and houses at the moment available to lease Esparina EC @ Sengkang
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