|
|
| Line 1: |
Line 1: |
| {{About|the fuel and industrial solvent}}
| | Hi recently there. Let me start by introducing the author, his name is Carson but he doesn't like you ought to realize use his full designation. Years ago we relocated to California nevertheless need to go for our grandkids. One of the things Excellent most is [http://www.bbc.co.uk/search/?q=country+music country music] but I struggle to [http://www.Wikipedia.org/wiki/uncover+time uncover time] for doing it. Production and planning has been my profession for it slow but I've already signed another one single. You can find my website here: http://wtc.la/stoya80387<br><br>Also visit my homepage: [http://wtc.la/stoya80387 stoya porn] |
| {{redirect|Petrol}}
| |
| {{Use dmy dates|date=July 2012}}
| |
| [[File:Gasoline in mason jar.jpg|right|thumb|A jar containing gasoline]]
| |
| [[File:Benzinepomp002.jpg|thumb|right|220px|A gasoline station.]]
| |
| '''Gasoline''' {{IPAc-en|ˈ|g|æ|s|ə|l|iː|n}}, or '''petrol''' {{IPAc-en|ˈ|p|ɛ|t|r|ə|l}}, is a transparent, [[petroleum]]-derived liquid that is used primarily as a fuel in [[internal combustion engine]]s. It consists mostly of [[organic compound]]s obtained by the [[fractional distillation]] of petroleum, enhanced with a variety of additives. Some gasolines also contain [[ethanol]] as an [[alternative fuel]]. In North America, the term ''gasoline'' is often shortened in colloquial usage to ''gas''. Elsewhere ''petrol'' is the common name in the United Kingdom, Republic of Ireland, Australia and in most of the other [[Commonwealth of Nations|Commonwealth]] countries.
| |
| | |
| ==Octane rating==
| |
| {{main|Octane rating}}
| |
| | |
| Spark ignition engines are designed to burn gasoline in a controlled process called [[deflagration]]. In some cases, however, the unburned mixture can autoignite (detonate from pressure and heat alone, rather than ignite from the spark plug at exactly the right time), which causes rapid pressure rise which can damage the engine. This phenomenon is often referred to as [[engine knocking]] or end-gas knock. One way to reduce knock in spark ignition engines is to increase the gasoline's resistance to [[autoignition temperature|autoignition]], which is expressed by its octane rating.
| |
| | |
| Octane rating is measured relative to a mixture of [[2,2,4-trimethylpentane]] (an [[isomer]] of [[octane]]) and n-[[heptane]]. There are different conventions for expressing octane ratings, so a fuel may have several different octane ratings based on the measure used. Research octane number (RON) for commercially-available gasoline varies by country. In [[Finland]], [[Sweden]], and [[Norway]], 95 RON is the standard for regular unleaded gasoline and 98 RON is also available as a more expensive option. In the UK, ordinary regular unleaded gasoline is 95 RON (not commonly available), premium unleaded gasoline is always 97 RON, and super unleaded is usually 97-98 RON. However, both Shell and BP produce fuel at 102 RON for cars with high-performance engines, and the supermarket chain [[Tesco]] began in 2006 to sell super unleaded gasoline rated at 99 RON. In the US, octane ratings in unleaded fuels can vary between 86 and 87 AKI (91-92 RON) for regular, through 89-90 AKI (94-95 RON) for mid-grade (European premium), up to 90-94 AKI (95-99 RON) for premium (European super).
| |
| | |
| The octane rating became important as the military sought higher output for [[aircraft engine]]s in the late 1930s and the 1940s. A higher octane rating allows a higher [[compression ratio]] or [[supercharger]] boost, and thus higher temperatures and pressures, which translate to higher power output. Some scientists even predicted that a nation with a good supply of high octane gasoline would have the advantage in air power. In 1943, the [[Rolls Royce Merlin]] aero engine produced 1,320 horsepower (984 kW) using 100 RON fuel from a modest 27 liter displacement. Towards the end of the [[second world war]], experiments were conducted using 150 RON fuel (100/150 avgas), obtained by adding 2.5% aniline to 100 octane avgas.<ref>[http://books.google.com/books?id=lNsDAAAAMBAJ&pg=PA524&dq=Popular+Science+1936+plane+%22Popular+Mechanics%22#v=onepage&q=Popular%20Science%201936%20plane%20%22Popular%20Mechanics%22&f=true "Best Gasoline Will Win War of the Future" ''Popular Mechanics'', April 1935] article at bottom of page 524</ref>
| |
| | |
| ==Stability==
| |
| | |
| Quality gasoline should be stable almost indefinitely if stored properly. Such storage should be in an airtight container (to prevent oxidation or water vapors mixing), and which can withstand the vapor pressure of the gasoline without venting ( to prevent the loss of the more volatile fractions), and at a stable cool temperature (to reduce the excess pressure from liquid expansion, and to reduce the rate of any decomposition reactions). When gasoline is not stored correctly, gums and solids may be created, which can corrode system components and accumulate on wetted surfaces, resulting in a condition called "stale fuel". Gasoline containing ethanol is especially subject to absorbing atmospheric moisture, then forming gums, solids, or two phases (a hydrocarbon phase floating on top of a water-alcohol phase).
| |
| | |
| The presence of these degradation products in fuel tank, lines, carburetor or fuel injection components makes it harder to start the engine, or causes reduced engine performance. On resumption of regular engine use, the buildup is often eventually cleaned out by the flow of fresh gasoline. The addition of a fuel stabilizer to gasoline can extend the life of fuel that is not or cannot be stored properly. Some typical fuel stabilizers are proprietary mixtures containing mineral spirits, isopropyl alcohol, 1,2,4-trimethylbenzene,or other additives. Fuel stabilizer is commonly used for small engines, such as lawnmower and tractor engines, especially when their use is seasonal (low to no use for one or more seasons of the year). Users have been advised to keep gasoline containers more than half full and properly capped to reduce air exposure, to avoid storage at high temperatures, to run an engine for ten minutes to circulate the stabilizer through all components prior to storage, and to run the engine at intervals to purge stale fuel from the [[carburetor]].<ref name=Ullmann/>
| |
| | |
| ==Energy content==
| |
| | |
| Energy is obtained from the combustion of gasoline by the conversion of a hydrocarbon to [[carbon dioxide]] and [[water]]. The combustion of octane follows this reaction:
| |
| :2 C<sub>8</sub>H<sub>18</sub> + 25 O<sub>2</sub> → 16 CO<sub>2</sub> + 18 H<sub>2</sub>O
| |
| | |
| gasoline contains about 42.4 [[megajoule|MJ]]/kg (120 MJ/US gal, {{nowrap|11.8 kWh/kg}}) quoting the lower heating value. Gasoline blends differ, and therefore actual energy content varies according to the season and producer by up to 4% more or less than the average, according to the US EPA. On average, about 74 L of gasoline (19.5 US gal, 16.3 imp gal) are available from a barrel of crude oil (about 46% by volume), varying due to quality of crude and grade of gasoline. The remainder are products ranging from tar to naptha.<ref>{{cite web|url = http://www.gravmag.com/oil.html |title = Oil Industry Statistics from Gibson Consulting |accessdate =31 July 2008}}</ref>
| |
| | |
| A high-octane-rated fuel, such as [[liquefied petroleum gas]] (LPG) has an overall lower power output at the typical 10:1 [[compression ratio]] of a gasoline engine. However, with an engine [[engine tuning|tuned]] to the [[Autogas|use of LPG]] (i.e. via higher compression ratios, such as 12:1 instead of 10:1), this lower power output can be eliminated. This is because higher-octane fuels allow for a higher compression ratio without knocking, resulting in a higher cylinder temperature, which improves efficiency. Also, increased mechanical efficiency is created by a higher compression ratio through the concomitant higher expansion ratio on the power stroke, which is by far the greater effect. The higher expansion ratio extracts more work from the high-pressure gas created by the combustion process. The applicable formula is <math>pV=nRT</math>. An [[Atkinson cycle]] engine uses the timing of the valve events to produce the benefits of a high expansion ratio without the disadvantages, chiefly detonation, of a high compression ratio. A high expansion ratio is also one of the two key reasons for the efficiency of Diesel engines, along with the elimination of pumping losses due to throttling of the intake air flow. A high compression ratio can be viewed as a necessary evil to have a high expansion ratio.{{citation needed|date=August 2012}}
| |
| | |
| The lower energy content (per liter) of LPG in comparison to gasoline is due mainly to its lower [[density]]. Energy content per kilogram is higher than for gasoline (higher [[hydrogen]] to [[carbon]] ratio, for an example see [[Standard_enthalpy_of_formation#Examples:_Inorganic_compounds_.28at_25.C2.B0C.2C_298.C2.B0K.29|Standard enthalpy of formation]]).
| |
| | |
| ==Density==
| |
| | |
| The density of gasoline ranges from 0.71–0.77 kg/l ({{nowrap|719.7 [[kg]]/[[Cubic meter|m<sup>3</sup>]]}} ; 0.026 [[Pound (mass)|lb]]/[[cubic inch|in<sup>3</sup>]]; 6.073 lb/[[US liquid gallon|US gal]]; 7.29 lb/[[imperial gallon|imp gal]]), higher densities having a greater volume of aromatics.<ref>{{cite web| title = Lead-Free gasoline Material Safety Data Sheet | author = Bell Fuels | publisher = [[NOAA]] | url = http://www.sefsc.noaa.gov/HTMLdocs/Gasoline.htm | accessdate =6 July 2008}}</ref> Gasoline floats on water; water cannot generally be used to extinguish a gasoline fire, unless used in a fine mist.
| |
| | |
| ==Chemical analysis and production==
| |
| | |
| [[Image:Nodding donkey.jpg|thumb|A [[pumpjack]] in the United States]]
| |
| [[Image:Gulf Offshore Platform.jpg|thumb|upright|An oil rig in the [[Gulf of Mexico]]]]
| |
| Gasoline is produced in [[oil refineries]]. Material separated from [[crude oil]] via [[distillation]], called virgin or straight-run gasoline, does not meet specifications for modern engines (particularly the octane rating, see below), but comprises part of the blend.
| |
| [[File:GasolineComp.png|thumb|340px|Some of the main components of gasoline: [[isooctane]], [[butane]], 3-ethyltoluene, and the octane enhancer [[MTBE]].]]
| |
| | |
| The bulk of a typical gasoline consists of [[hydrocarbon]]s with between 4 and 12 [[carbon]] [[atom]]s per [[molecule]] (commonly referred to as C4-C12).<ref name=Ullmann>Werner Dabelstein, Arno Reglitzky, Andrea Schütze and Klaus Reders "Automotive Fuels" in Ullmann's Encyclopedia of Industrial Chemistry 2007, Wiley-VCH, Weinheim.{{DOI|10.1002/14356007.a16_719.pub2}}</ref>
| |
| | |
| The various [[Oil refinery|refinery]] streams blended to make gasoline have different characteristics. Some important streams are:
| |
| *'''straight-run gasoline''' is distilled directly from [[crude oil]]. Once the leading source of fuel, its low octane rating required lead additives. It is low in aromatics (depending on the grade of [[crude oil]]), containing some [[cycloalkane]]s ([[naphthene]]s) and no [[alkene|olefins]]. About 0-20% of gasoline is derived from this material, in part because the supply of this fraction is insufficient and its [[Octane_rating#Research_Octane_Number_.28RON.29|RON]] is too low.
| |
| *'''reformate''', produced in a [[catalytic reformer]] has a high octane rating with high [[aromatic]] content, and very low olefins ([[alkene]]s). Most of the [[benzene]], [[toluene]], and [[xylene]] (the so-called [[BTX (chemistry)|BTX]]) are more valuable as chemical feedstocks and are thus removed to some extent.
| |
| *'''cat cracked gasoline''' or '''cat cracked [[petroleum naphtha|naphtha]]''', produced from a [[Fluid catalytic cracking|catalytic cracker]], with a moderate octane rating, high [[olefin]]s (alkene) content, and moderate aromatics level.
| |
| *'''hydrocrackate''' (heavy, mid, and light) produced from a hydrocracker, with medium to low octane rating and moderate aromatic levels.
| |
| *'''alkylate''' is produced in an [[alkylation]] unit, involving the addition of isobutane to [[alkene]]s giving branched chains but low aromatics.
| |
| *'''isomerate''' is obtained by isomerizing low octane straight run gasoline to iso-parafins (like isooctane).
| |
| | |
| The terms above are the [[jargon]] used in the oil industry, but terminology varies.
| |
| | |
| Overall, a typical gasoline is predominantly a mixture of paraffins ([[alkane]]s), cycloalkanes (naphthenes), and olefins (alkenes). The actual ratio depends on:
| |
| *the oil refinery that makes the gasoline, as not all refineries have the same set of processing units;
| |
| *[[crude oil]] feed used by the refinery;
| |
| *the grade of gasoline, in particular, the octane rating.
| |
| | |
| Currently, many countries set limits on gasoline [[aromatic]]s in general, [[benzene]] in particular, and olefin (alkene) content. Such regulations led to increasing preference for high octane pure paraffin (alkane) components, such as alkylate, and is forcing refineries to add processing units to reduce benzene content.
| |
| | |
| Gasoline can also contain other [[organic compound]]s, such as [[organic ether]]s (deliberately added), plus small levels of contaminants, in particular [[organosulfur]] compounds, but these are usually removed at the refinery.
| |
| | |
| ==Additives==
| |
| {{See also|List of gasoline additives}}
| |
| | |
| ===Antiknock additives===
| |
| [[Image:Reservekanister.JPG|thumb|A plastic container for storing gasoline used in Germany]]
| |
| Most countries have phased out leaded fuel. Different additives have replaced the lead compounds. The most popular additives include [[aromatic hydrocarbon]]s, [[ether]]s and [[alcohol as a fuel|alcohol]] (usually [[ethanol]] or [[methanol]]).
| |
| | |
| ====Tetraethyllead====
| |
| {{main|Tetraethyllead}}
| |
| <!-- This section is linked from [[Lead]] -->
| |
| Gasoline, when used in high-[[compression (physical)|compression]] internal combustion engines, tends to autoignite (''detonate'') causing damaging "[[engine knocking]]" (also called "pinging" or "pinking") noise. To address this problem, [[tetraethyllead]] (TEL) was widely adopted as an additive for gasoline in the 1920s. With the discovery of the extent of environmental and health damage caused by the lead, however, and the incompatibility of lead with [[catalytic converter]]s, leaded gasoline was phased out beginning in 1973. By 1995, leaded fuel accounted for only 0.6% of total gasoline sales and less than 2000 [[short tons]] (1814 t) of lead per year. From 1 January 1996, the [[Clean Air Act (United States)|U.S. Clean Air Act]] banned the sale of leaded fuel for use in on-road vehicles. The use of TEL also necessitated other additives, such as dibromoethane.
| |
| | |
| ====MMT====
| |
| [[Methylcyclopentadienyl manganese tricarbonyl]] (MMT) is used in Canada and in Australia to boost octane. It also helps old cars designed for leaded fuel run on unleaded fuel without need for additives to prevent valve problems. Its use in the US has been restricted by regulations.
| |
| | |
| ===Fuel stabilizers (antioxidants and metal deactivator)===
| |
| [[Image:Antioxidant.png|thumb|right|240px|Substituted [[phenol]]s and derivatives of [[phenylenediamine]] are common antioxidants used to inhibit gum formation in gasoline (gasoline).]]
| |
| Gummy, sticky resin deposits result from [[Oxidation|oxidative]] degradation of gasoline upon long term storage. These harmful deposits arise from the oxidation of [[alkene]]s and other minor components in gasoline (see [[drying oil]]s). Improvements in refinery techniques have generally reduced the susceptibility of gasolines to these problems. Previously, catalytically or thermally cracked gasolines are most susceptible to oxidation. The formation of these gums is accelerated by copper salts, which can be neutralized by additives call [[metal deactivator]]s.
| |
| | |
| This degradation can be prevented through the addition of 5–100 ppm of [[antioxidant]]s, such as [[phenylenediamine]]s and other [[amine]]s.<ref name=Ullmann/> Hydrocarbons with a [[bromine number]] of 10 or above can be protected with the combination of unhindered or partially hindered phenols and oil soluble strong amine bases, such as hindered phenols. "Stale" gasoline can be detected by a [[colorimetric]] [[enzymatic]] test for [[organic peroxide]]s produced by oxidation of the gasoline.<ref>{{patent|AU|2000/72399 A1|Gasoline test kit}}</ref><!---See http://www.patentlens.net/patentlens/structured.cgi?patnum=AU_2000/72399_A1#show if template link fails--->
| |
| | |
| Gasolines are also treated with [[metal deactivator]]s, which are compounds that sequester (deactivate) metal salts that otherwise accelerate the formation of gummy residues. The metal impurities might arise from the engine itself or as contaminants in the fuel.
| |
| | |
| ===Detergents===
| |
| Gasoline, as delivered at the pump, also contains additives to reduce internal engine carbon buildups, improve [[combustion]], and to allow easier starting in cold climates. High levels of detergent can be found in [[Top Tier Detergent Gasoline]]s. These gasolines exceed the U.S. EPA's minimum requirement for detergent content.{{citation needed|date=October 2012}} The specification for Top Tier Detergent gasolines was developed by four automakers: GM, Honda, Toyota and BMW. According to the bulletin, the minimal EPA requirement is not sufficient to keep engines clean.<ref>"Top Tier Detergent Gasoline (Deposits, Fuel Economy, No Start, Power, Performance, Stall Concerns), GM Bulletin, 04-06-04-047, 06-Engine/Propulsion System, June 2004</ref> Typical detergents include alkylamines and alkyl phosphates at the level of 50-100 ppm.<ref name=Ullmann/>
| |
| | |
| ===Ethanol===
| |
| | |
| ====European Union====
| |
| In the EU, 5% ethanol can be added within the common gasoline spec (EN 228). Discussions are ongoing to allow 10% blending of ethanol (available in Finnish, French and German gas stations). In Finland most gasoline stations sell 95E10, which is 10% of ethanol; and 98E5, which is 5% ethanol. Most gasoline sold in Sweden has 5-15% ethanol added.
| |
| | |
| ====Brazil====
| |
| In Brazil, the [[Brazilian National Agency of Petroleum, Natural Gas and Biofuels]] (ANP) requires gasoline for automobile use to have from 18 to 25% of ethanol added to its composition.<ref>http://www.senado.gov.br/atividade/materia/detalhes.asp?p_cod_mate=100053</ref>
| |
| | |
| ====Australia====
| |
| Legislation requires retailers to label fuels containing ethanol on the dispenser, and limits ethanol use to 10% of petrol in Australia. Such petrol is commonly called [[Common ethanol fuel mixtures|E10]] by major brands, and it is cheaper than regular unleaded petrol.
| |
| | |
| ====United States====
| |
| The federal [[Renewable Fuel Standard]] (RFS) effectively requires refiners and blenders to blend renewable biofuels (mostly ethanol) with gasoline, sufficient to meet a growing annual target of total gallons blended. Although the mandate does not require a specific percentage of ethanol, annual increases in the target combined with declining gasoline consumption has caused the typical ethanol content in gasoline to approach 10%. Most fuel pumps display a sticker that states that the fuel may contain up to 10% ethanol, an intentional disparity that reflects the varying actual percentage. Until late 2010, fuels retailers were only authorized to sell fuel containing up to 10 percent ethanol (E10), and most vehicle warranties (except for flexible fuel vehicles) authorize fuels that contain no more than 10 percent ethanol.<ref>[http://www.nacsonline.com/NACS/Resources/campaigns/GasPrices_2011/Pages/ChallengesRemainBeforeE15UsageIsWidespread.aspx Challenges Remain Before E15 Usage Is Widespread ]</ref> In parts of the United States, [[ethanol]] is sometimes added to gasoline without an indication that it is a component.
| |
| | |
| ====India====
| |
| The [[Government of India]] in October 2007 decided to make 5% ethanol blending (with gasoline) mandatory. Discussions are ongoing to increase the blending of ethanol to 10%.<ref name="Government to take a call on ethanol price soon">{{cite news | url=http://www.thehindu.com/news/national/article2647940.ece | title=Government to take a call on ethanol price soon | date=21 Nov 2011 | accessdate=25 May 2012}}</ref><ref name="India to raise ethanol blending in gasoline to 10%">{{cite news | url=http://www.commodityonline.com/news/india-to-raise-ethanol-blending-in-gasoline-to-10-43892-3-43893.html | title=India to raise ethanol blending in gasoline to 10% | date=22 November 2011 | accessdate=25 May 2012}}</ref>
| |
| | |
| ===Dye===
| |
| {{Main|Fuel dyes}}
| |
| In Australia, the lowest grade of petrol (RON 91) is dyed a light shade of purple and the medium grade (RON 95) is dyed yellow. {{citation needed|date=October 2012}}
| |
| | |
| In South Africa, unleaded fuel is dyed green and lead-replacement fuel is dyed red.{{Citation needed|date=August 2012}}
| |
| | |
| In the United States, aviation gasoline ([[avgas]]) is dyed to identify its octane rating and to distinguish it from kerosene-based jet fuel, which is clear.<ref>http://www.eaa.org/autofuel/avgas/grades.asp</ref>
| |
| | |
| In Canada and the United Kingdom gasoline for marine and farm use is dyed red and is not subject to road tax.
| |
| | |
| ===Oxygenate blending===
| |
| [[Oxygenate]] blending adds [[oxygen]]-bearing compounds such as [[MTBE]], [[ETBE]] and [[ethanol]]. The presence of these oxygenates reduces the amount of [[carbon monoxide]] and unburned fuel in the exhaust gas. In many areas throughout the US, oxygenate blending is mandated by EPA regulations to reduce smog and other airborne pollutants. For example, in Southern California, fuel must contain 2% oxygen by weight, resulting in a mixture of 5.6% ethanol in gasoline. The resulting fuel is often known as reformulated gasoline (RFG) or oxygenated gasoline, or in the case of California, [[California reformulated gasoline]]. The federal requirement that RFG contain oxygen was dropped on 6 May 2006 because the industry had developed [[Volatile organic compound|VOC]]-controlled RFG that did not need additional oxygen.<ref>{{cite web| url = http://www.epa.gov/otaq/rfg_regs.htm#usage | title = Removal of Reformulated Gasoline Oxygen Content Requirement (national) and Revision of Commingling Prohibition to Address Non-0xygenated Reformulated Gasoline (national) | date = 22 February 2006 | publisher = [[U.S. Environmental Protection Agency]]}}</ref>
| |
| | |
| MTBE use is being phased out in some states due to issues with contamination of ground water. In some places, such as California, it is already banned. Ethanol and, to a lesser extent, the ethanol-derived ETBE are common replacements. Since most ethanol is derived from biomass, such as corn, sugar cane or grain, it is referred to as bioethanol. A common ethanol-gasoline mix of 10% ethanol mixed with gasoline is called [[Ethanol fuel|gasohol]] or E10, and an ethanol-gasoline mix of 85% ethanol mixed with gasoline is called [[E85]]. The most extensive use of ethanol takes place in [[Brazil]], where the ethanol is derived from [[sugarcane]]. In 2004, over 3.4 billion US gallons (2.8 billion imp gal/13 million m³) of ethanol was produced in the United States for fuel use, mostly from [[maize|corn]], and E85 is slowly becoming available in much of the United States, though many of the relatively few stations vending E85 are not open to the general public.<ref>{{cite web| url = http://www.eere.energy.gov/afdc/fuels/stations_locator.html | title = Alternative Fueling Station Locator | publisher = [[U.S. Department of Energy]]}}</ref> The use of [[bioethanol]], either directly or indirectly by conversion of such ethanol to bio-ETBE, is encouraged by the European Union [[Directive on the Promotion of the use of biofuels and other renewable fuels for transport]]. Since producing bioethanol from fermented sugars and starches involves [[distillation]], though, ordinary people in much of Europe cannot legally ferment and distill their own bioethanol at present (unlike in the US, where getting a [[BATF]] distillation permit has been easy since the 1973 oil crisis).
| |
| | |
| ==Safety==
| |
| [[File:HAZMAT Class 3 Gasoline.png|thumb|HAZMAT Class 3 Gasoline]]
| |
| | |
| ===Environmental considerations===
| |
| Combustion of {{convert|1|USgal|liter}} of gasoline produces {{convert|8788|g|lbs}} of carbon dioxide (2.3 kg/l), a [[greenhouse gas]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.slate.com/id/2152685/ |title=How Gasoline Becomes CO2 |publisher=Slate Magazine |date=November 1, 2006}}</ref>
| |
| | |
| The main concern with gasoline on the environment, aside from the complications of its extraction and refining, is the potential [[climate change|effect on the climate]]. Unburnt gasoline and [[Automobile emissions control#Evaporative emissions control|evaporation from the tank]], when in the [[atmosphere]], react in [[sunlight]] to produce [[photochemical smog]]. Addition of ethanol increases the volatility of gasoline, potentially worsening the problem.
| |
| | |
| The chief risks of such leaks come not from vehicles, but from gasoline delivery truck accidents and leaks from storage tanks. Because of this risk, most (underground) storage tanks now have extensive measures in place to detect and prevent any such leaks, such as monitoring systems (Veeder-Root, Franklin Fueling).
| |
| | |
| ===Toxicity===
| |
| The [[material safety data sheet]] for unleaded gasoline shows at least 15 hazardous chemicals occurring in various amounts, including [[benzene]] (up to 5% by volume), [[toluene]] (up to 35% by volume), [[naphthalene]] (up to 1% by volume), [[1,2,4-Trimethylbenzene|trimethylbenzene]] (up to 7% by volume), [[Methyl tert-butyl ether|methyl ''tert''-butyl ether]] (MTBE) (up to 18% by volume, in some states) and about ten others.<ref>[http://firstfuelbank.com/msds/Tesoro.pdf Material safety data sheet] Tesoro petroleum Companies, Inc., U.S., 8 February 2003</ref> Hydrocarbons in gasoline generally exhibit low acute toxicities, with [[LD50]] of 700 – 2700 mg/kg for simple aromatic compounds.<ref>Karl Griesbaum et al. "Hydrocarbons" in Ullmann's Encyclopedia of Industrial Chemistry 2005, Wiley-VCH, Weinheim.{{DOI|10.1002/14356007.a13_227}}</ref> Benzene and many antiknocking additives are [[carcinogenic]].
| |
| | |
| ===Inhalation===
| |
| [[Inhalant abuse|Huffed]] gasoline is a common intoxicant that has become epidemic in some poorer communities and indigenous groups in Australia, Canada, New Zealand, and some Pacific Islands.<ref>[http://www.abc.net.au/health/library/stories/2005/24/11/1831506.htm gasoline Sniffing Fact File] Sheree Cairney, www.abc.net.au, Published 24th November 2005. Retrieved 13th October 2007, a modified version of [http://www.abc.net.au/health/library/gasoline_ff.htm the original article], now archived [http://web.archive.org/web/20070615215918/http://www.abc.net.au/health/library/gasoline_ff.htm]</ref> In response, [[Opal (fuel)|Opal]] fuel has been developed by the [[BP]] [[Town of Kwinana|Kwinana]] Refinery in Australia, and contains only 5% [[aromatics]] (unlike the usual 25%), which weakens the effects of inhalation.<ref>[http://www.bp.com/genericarticle.do?categoryId=9012769&contentId=7024904 Fuel technology] www.bp.com. Retrieved 8th June 2007.</ref>
| |
| | |
| ===Flammability===
| |
| [[Image:gasoline-fire.png|thumb|right|250px|Uncontrolled burning of gasoline produces large quantities of [[soot]].]]
| |
| Like other alkanes, gasoline burns in a limited range of its vapor phase and, coupled with its volatility, this makes leaks highly dangerous when sources of ignition are present. Gasoline has a lower explosion limit of 1.4% by volume and an upper explosion limit of 7.6%. If the concentration is below 1.4%, the air-gasoline mixture is too lean and does not ignite. If the concentration is above 7.6%, the mixture is too rich and also does not ignite. However, gasoline vapor rapidly mixes and spreads with air, making unconstrained gasoline quickly flammable. Many accidents involve people using gasoline to start bonfires. The gasoline readily vaporizes and mixes with surrounding air.{{citation needed|date=August 2012}}
| |
| | |
| ==Usage and pricing==
| |
| {{Main|gasoline usage and pricing|Peak oil}}
| |
| [[Image:Pricegraph.gif|thumb|UK gasoline prices]]
| |
| The United States accounts for about 44% of the world’s gasoline consumption.<ref>http://www.worldwatch.org/node/5579 , http://www.eia.doe.gov/emeu/international/oilconsumption.html</ref> In 2003 The US consumed {{convert|476.474|GL|USgal impgal}},<ref>[http://earthtrends.wri.org/text/energy-resources/variable-291.html EarthTrends: Energy and Resources — Transportation: Motor gasoline consumption Units: Million liters]</ref> which equates to 1.3 [[gigaliter]]s of gasoline each day (about 360 million US or 300 million imperial [[gallon]]s). The US used about 510 billion liters (138 billion US gal/115 billion imp gal) of gasoline in 2006, of which 5.6% was mid-grade and 9.5% was premium grade.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://tonto.eia.doe.gov/dnav/pet/pet_cons_prim_dcu_nus_a.htm|title=U.S. Prime Supplier Sales Volumes of petroleum Products|publisher=United States Energy Information Administration|accessdate=24 October 2007}}</ref>
| |
| | |
| Western countries have the highest usage rates per person.{{Citation needed|date=March 2012}}
| |
| | |
| ===Europe===
| |
| Unlike the US, countries in Europe impose substantial [[fuel tax|tax]]es on fuels such as gasoline. The price of gasoline in Europe is typically more than twice that in the US.
| |
| In Italy, due to the amendments imposed by Monti's Government in December 2011, the price of gasoline has passed, in the period of two weeks, from 1.50 €/l (7.48 US$/gal) to 1.75 €/l (8.72 US$/gal); on March, 17th, in a gasoline Station located near [[Ancona]], has reached the psychological threshold of 2 €/l: the price was € 2.001/l (9.97 US$/gal). This chart must be compared to the USA national average price of gasoline of 0.71 €/l .
| |
| {| class="wikitable sortable"
| |
| |+ Pump price (in Euro/liter) 2004 to 2012 lead-free 95 Octane gasoline in selected European countries. To convert prices for Euro/liter to US$/gal, multiply by 4.985 (19 March 2012 US$1.317 = 1.00 Euro).
| |
| |- class="hintergrundfarbe5"
| |
| ! align="center" | Country<br /> || Dec. 2004<br /> || May 2005<br /> || July 2007<br /> || April 2008<br /> || Jan 2009 <br /> || Mar 2010 <br /> || Feb 2011 <br /> || Jan 2012 <br /> || Feb 2012 <br/> || Mar 2012 <br/> || May 2012 <br/>
| |
| |-
| |
| |[[Germany]] || 1.19 || 1.18 || 1.37 || 1.43 || 1.09 || 1.35 || 1.50
| |
| |-
| |
| |[[France]] || 1.05 || 1.15 || 1.31 || 1.38 || 1.07 || 1.35 || 1.53
| |
| |-
| |
| |[[Italy]] || 1.10 || 1.23 || 1.35 || 1.39 || 1.10 || 1.34 || 1.46 || 1.75 || 1.78 || 1.88 || 1.82
| |
| |-
| |
| |[[Netherlands]] || 1.26 || 1.33 || 1.51 || 1.56 || 1.25 || 1.54 || 1.66 || 1.72
| |
| |-
| |
| |[[Poland]] || 0.80 || 0.92 || 1.15 || 1.23 || 0.82 || 1.12 || 1.26
| |
| |-
| |
| |[[Switzerland]] || 0.92 || 0.98 || 1.06 || 1.14 || 0.88 || 1.12 || 1.29 || 1.40 || 1.47
| |
| |-
| |
| |[[Hungary]] || 1.00 || 1.01 || 1.13 || 1.13 || 0.86 || 1.22 || 1.32 || 1.38 || 1.44 || 1.47 || 1.55
| |
| |}
| |
| | |
| ===United States===
| |
| From 1998 to 2004, the price of gasoline fluctuated between $1 and $2 [[USD]] per [[U.S. gallon]].<ref name="FE.gov">[http://www.fueleconomy.gov/feg/gasprices/faq.shtml#History ''Fuel Economy.gov'', FAQ]</ref> After 2004, the price increased until the average gas price reached a high of $4.11 per U.S. gallon in mid-2008, but receded to approximately $2.60 per U.S. gallon by September 2009.<ref name="FE.gov" /> More recently, the U.S. experienced an upswing in gas prices through 2011,<ref name="taxfoundation.org">http://www.taxfoundation.org/UserFiles/Image/Fiscal%20Facts/gas-tax-690px.jpg</ref> and by 1 March 2012, the national average was $3.74 per gal.<ref name="Associated Press">http://hosted.ap.org/dynamic/stories/U/US_OIL_PRICES_1ST_LD_WRITETHRU?SITE=TXHAR&SECTION=HOME&TEMPLATE=DEFAULT</ref>
| |
| | |
| In the United States, most consumer goods bear pre-tax prices, but gasoline prices are posted with taxes included. Taxes are added by federal, state, and local governments. As of 2009, the federal tax is 18.4¢ per gallon for gasoline and 24.4¢ per gallon for diesel (excluding [[red diesel]]).<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.fhwa.dot.gov/infrastructure/gastax.cfm |title=When did the Federal Government begin collecting the gas tax? — Ask the Rambler — Highway History — FHWA |publisher=Fhwa.dot.gov |date= |accessdate=17 October 2010}}</ref> Among states, the highest gasoline tax rates, including the federal taxes as of 2005, are New York (62.9¢/gal), Hawaii (60.1¢/gal), and California (60¢/gal).<ref name="taxfoundation.org"/> However, many states' taxes are a percentage and thus vary in amount depending on the cost of the gasoline.
| |
| | |
| About 9% of all gasoline sold in the US in May 2009 was premium grade, according to the Energy Information Administration. ''[[Consumer Reports]]'' magazine says, “If [your owner’s manual] says to use regular fuel, do so—there’s no advantage to a higher grade.”<ref>http://www.consumerreports.org/cro/cars/tires-auto-parts/car-maintenance/save-at-the-pump/overview/save-at-the-pump-ov.htm</ref> The Associated Press said premium gas—which is a higher octane and costs more per gallon than regular unleaded—should be used only if the manufacturer says it is “required”.<ref>[http://www.philly.com/philly/business/personal_finance/081909_premium_gas.html Associated Press, “Gassing up with premium probably a waste,” 19 August 2009.]</ref> Cars with turbocharged engines and high compression ratios often specify premium gas because higher octane fuels reduce the incidence of "knock", or fuel pre-detonation.<ref>http://www.scientificamerican.com/article.cfm?id=fact-or-fiction-premium-g</ref> If regular fuel is used, the engine computer usually switches to a less aggressive fuel map to protect the engine, and performance is decreased.
| |
| | |
| ==History==
| |
| The first automotive combustion engines, so-called [[Otto engine]]s, were developed in the last quarter of the 19th century in Germany. The fuel was a relatively volatile hydrocarbon obtained from [[coal gas]]. With a boiling point near 85 °C (octanes boil about 40 °C higher), it was well suited for early carburetors (evaporators). The development of a "spray nozzle" carburetor enabled the use of less volatile fuels. Further improvements in engine efficiency were attempted at higher [[compression ratio]]s, but early attempts were blocked by knocking (premature explosion of fuel). In the 1920s, antiknock compounds were introduced by Migley and Boyd, specifically [[tetraethyllead]] (TEL). This innovation started a cycle of improvements in fuel efficiency that coincided with the large-scale development of oil refining to provide more products in the boiling range of gasolines. In the 1950s oil refineries started to focus on high octane fuels, and then detergents were added to gasoline to clean the jets and carburetors. The 1970s witnessed greater attention to the environmental consequences of burning gasoline. These considerations led to the phasing out of TEL and its replacement by other antiknock compounds. Subsequently, low-sulfur gasoline was introduced, in part to preserve the catalysts in modern exhaust systems.<ref name=Ullmann/>
| |
| | |
| ==Etymology and terminology==
| |
| "Gasoline" is cited (under the spelling "gasolene") from 1863 in the ''Oxford English Dictionary''. It was never a trademark, although it may have been derived from older trademarks such as "Cazeline" and "Gazeline".<ref name="oed">'''gasoline,''' ''n.'', and '''gasoline,''' ''n.,'' Oxford English Dictionary online edition</ref>
| |
| | |
| Variant spellings of "gasoline" have been used to refer to raw [[petroleum]] since the 16th century.<ref name="oed"/> "Petrol" was first used as the name of a refined petroleum product around 1870 by British wholesaler [[Carless Refining and Marketing Ltd|Carless, Capel & Leonard]], who marketed it as a solvent.<ref>"[http://www.vintagegarage.co.uk/histories/carless%20capel%20&%20leonard.htm Carless, Capel & Leonard]", vintagegarage.co.uk, accessed 2012-08-05</ref> When the product later found a new use as a motor fuel, [[Frederick Richard Simms|Frederick Simms]], an associate of [[Gottlieb Daimler]], suggested to Carless that they register the trade mark "petrol",<ref>"[http://www.nationalarchives.gov.uk/a2a/records.aspx?cat=084-dbccl&cid=0#0 Carless, Capel and Leonard Ltd Records: Administrative History]", The National Archives, accessed 2012-08-05</ref> but by this time the word was already in general use, possibly inspired by the French ''pétrole'',<ref name="oed"/> and the registration was not allowed. Carless registered a number of alternative names for the product, while their competitors used the term "motor spirit" until the 1930s.<ref name = etymonline>[http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?search=gasoline Online Etymology Dictionary]</ref><ref>{{Cite journal| journal = Chrysler Collector | issue = 154 | year = 2004 | pages = 16–20 | author = Ron Hincks | title = Our Motoring Heritage: gasoline & Oil}}</ref>
| |
| | |
| In many countries, gasoline has a colloquial name derived from that of the chemical [[benzene]] (''e.g.'', German ''Benzin'', Dutch ''benzine'', Italian ''benzina'', Chile ''bencina'', Thai เบนซิน ''bayn sin '', Greek βενζίνη ''venzini'', Romanian ''benzină''). Argentina, Uruguay and Paraguay use the colloquial name ''nafta'' derived from that of the chemical [[naphtha]].<ref>[http://www.spanishdict.com/translate/nafta Spanish Dict]</ref>
| |
| | |
| The terms "mogas", short for motor gasoline, or "autogas", short for automobile gasoline, are used to distinguish [[automobile]] fuel from aviation fuel, or "[[avgas]]".<ref name="FAA">{{cite web
| |
| | url = http://www.faa.gov/aircraft/safety/alerts/saib/media/CE-00-19R1.htm
| |
| | title = Revised Special Airworthiness Information Bulletin (SAIB) Number CE-00-19R1
| |
| | accessdate =28 October 2006
| |
| | author = Federal Aviation Administration
| |
| | authorlink = Federal Aviation Administration
| |
| | date = 5 April 2000
| |
| | quote = The FAA highly recommends installing placards stating the use of 82UL is or is not approved on those airplanes that specify unleaded autogas as an approved fuel.
| |
| |archiveurl = http://web.archive.org/web/20061012225919/http://www.faa.gov/aircraft/safety/alerts/saib/media/CE-00-19R1.htm <!-- Bot retrieved archive --> |archivedate = 12 October 2006}}</ref><ref name="AvWeb17Nov07">{{cite web|url = http://www.avweb.com/avwebflash/news/GroupAsksEPAToGetTheLeadOutOfAvgas_196596-1.html|title = Avgas: Group Asks EPA To Get The Lead Out|accessdate =18 February 2008|last = Pew |first = Glenn |date=November 2007}}</ref><ref name="aviationinfo">[http://www.experimentalaircraft.info/homebuilt-aircraft/aviation-fuel-mogas.php], Mogas, Alcohol Blend, Octane, Aviation Fuels and Specifications</ref> In [[British English]], ''gasoline'' can refer to a different petroleum derivative historically used in [[Kerosene lamp|lamp]]s, but this usage is relatively uncommon.{{Citation needed|date=October 2010}}
| |
| | |
| == Comparison with other fuels ==
| |
| {{See also|Energy_content_of_biofuel}}
| |
| <!--Note: I modified this table because the values in SI units didn't agree with the values in British or US units. So I used another source (Oak Ridge reference), but it did not have MJ/kg, and I did not have the time to try to find accurate densities in order to convert to MJ/kg. If someone can fill in the blanks using good data, it would be useful. -->
| |
| Volumetric and mass [[energy density]] of some fuels compared with gasoline (in the rows with [[higher heating value|gross]] and [[lower heating value|net]], they are from<ref name=TEDB>[http://cta.ornl.gov/data/appendix_b.shtml Appendix B, Transportation Energy Data Book] from the [[Center for Transportation Analysis]] of the [[Oak Ridge National Laboratory]]</ref>):
| |
| {| class="wikitable sortable"<!--please cleanup this table to enable sorting: non-numeric characters that break sorting should be removed or moved to non-numeric sorting columns-->
| |
| |-
| |
| ! style="text-align:left;"|Fuel type{{Clarify|date=June 2009|reason=need specific compositions of each fuel, plus cites, to avoid vagueness in numbers}}
| |
| ! style="text-align:right;"|Gross MJ/[[liter|L]]
| |
| ! style="text-align:right;"| MJ/kg
| |
| ! Gross [[British thermal unit|BTU]]/[[imperial gallon|gal]]<br>(imp)
| |
| ! Gross BTU/[[US gallon|gal]]<br>(U.S.)
| |
| ! Net BTU/gal (U.S.)
| |
| ! style="text-align:right;"| [[octane rating|RON]]
| |
| |-
| |
| | Conventional gasoline
| |
| | style="text-align:right;"|34.8
| |
| | style="text-align:right;"|44.4<ref name=Thomas>Thomas, George: {{PDF|[http://www.eere.energy.gov/hydrogenandfuelcells/pdfs/storage.pdf Overview of Storage Development DOE Hydrogen Program]|99.6 KB}}. Livermore, CA. Sandia National Laboratories. 2000.</ref>
| |
| | style="text-align:right;"|150,100
| |
| | style="text-align:right;"|125,000
| |
| | style="text-align:right;"|115,400
| |
| | style="text-align:right;"|91-92
| |
| |-
| |
| | [[Autogas]] ([[Liquified petroleum gas|LPG]]) (Consisting mostly of C2 to C4 range hydrocarbons){{Citation needed|date=August 2010}}
| |
| | style="text-align:right;"|26.8
| |
| | style="text-align:right;"|46
| |
| | style="text-align:right;"|
| |
| | style="text-align:right;"|
| |
| | style="text-align:right;"|
| |
| | style="text-align:right;"|108
| |
| |-
| |
| |[[ethanol fuel|Ethanol]]
| |
| | style="text-align:right;"|21.2<ref name=Thomas />
| |
| | style="text-align:right;"|26.8<ref name=Thomas />
| |
| | style="text-align:right;"|101,600
| |
| | style="text-align:right;"|84,600
| |
| | style="text-align:right;"|75,700
| |
| | style="text-align:right;"|108.7<ref name='Fuel 89 (2010) 2713-2720'>{{cite journal | doi = 10.1016/j.fuel.2010.01.032 | title = Impact of alcohol–gasoline fuel blends on the performance and combustion characteristics of an SI engine | year = 2010 | last1 = Eyidogan | first1 = Muharrem | last2 = Ozsezen | first2 = Ahmet Necati | last3 = Canakci | first3 = Mustafa | last4 = Turkcan | first4 = Ali | journal = Fuel | volume = 89 | issue = 10 | pages = 2713}}</ref>
| |
| | |
| <!-- remove incorrect citation of 113<ref name='Texas Energy Conservation Office'>{{cite web | url = http://www.seco.cpa.state.tx.us/re_ethanol.htm | title = Ethanol | accessdate =6 October 2010}}</ref> -->
| |
| |-
| |
| | [[Methanol]]
| |
| | style="text-align:right;"|17.9
| |
| | style="text-align:right;"|19.9<ref name=Thomas/>
| |
| | style="text-align:right;"|77,600
| |
| | style="text-align:right;"|64,600
| |
| | style="text-align:right;"|56,600
| |
| | style="text-align:right;"|123
| |
| |-
| |
| | [[Butanol fuel|Butanol]]{{ref}}
| |
| | style="text-align:right;"|29.2
| |
| | style="text-align:right;"|36.6
| |
| | style="text-align:right;"|
| |
| | style="text-align:right;"|
| |
| | style="text-align:right;"|
| |
| | style="text-align:right;"|91-99{{Clarify|date=June 2009|reason=need specific compositions of each fuel, plus cites, to avoid vagueness in numbers; pure n-butanol only has one rating; otherwise split into two Butanol mixes}}
| |
| |-
| |
| | [[Alcohol fuel|Gasohol]]
| |
| | style="text-align:right;"|31.2
| |
| | style="text-align:right;"|
| |
| | style="text-align:right;"|145,200
| |
| | style="text-align:right;"|120,900
| |
| | style="text-align:right;"|112,400
| |
| | style="text-align:right;"|93/94{{Clarify|date=June 2009|reason=can only be one figure, cites would help}}
| |
| |-
| |
| | [[Diesel fuel|Diesel]](*)
| |
| | style="text-align:right;"|38.6
| |
| | style="text-align:right;"|45.4
| |
| | style="text-align:right;"|166,600
| |
| | style="text-align:right;"|138,700
| |
| | style="text-align:right;"|128,700
| |
| | style="text-align:right;"|25
| |
| |-
| |
| | [[Biodiesel]]
| |
| | style="text-align:right;"|33.3-35.7<ref>[http://www.ces.ncsu.edu/forestry/biomass/pubs/WB0008.pdf Bioenergy Feedstock Development Programs at Oak Rodge National Laboratory]</ref>{{Clarify|date=June 2009|reason=need specific composition, plus cite, to avoid vagueness in numbers; otherwise remove this as uninformative}}
| |
| | style="text-align:right;"|
| |
| | style="text-align:right;"|
| |
| | style="text-align:right;"|126,200
| |
| | style="text-align:right;"|117,100
| |
| | style="text-align:right;"|
| |
| |-
| |
| | [[Avgas]] (high octane gasoline)
| |
| | style="text-align:right;"|33.5
| |
| | style="text-align:right;"|46.8
| |
| | style="text-align:right;"|144,400
| |
| | style="text-align:right;"|120,200
| |
| | style="text-align:right;"|112,000
| |
| | style="text-align:right;"|
| |
| |-
| |
| | [[Aviation fuel#Energy content|Jet fuel (kerosene based)]]
| |
| | style="text-align:right;"|35.1
| |
| | style="text-align:right;"|43.8
| |
| | style="text-align:right;"|151,242
| |
| | style="text-align:right;"|125,935
| |
| | style="text-align:right;"|
| |
| | style="text-align:right;"|
| |
| |-
| |
| | [[Aviation fuel#Energy content|Jet fuel (naphtha)]]
| |
| | style="text-align:right;"|
| |
| | style="text-align:right;"|
| |
| | style="text-align:right;"|
| |
| | style="text-align:right;"|127,500
| |
| | style="text-align:right;"|118,700
| |
| | style="text-align:right;"|
| |
| |-
| |
| | [[Liquefied natural gas]]
| |
| | style="text-align:right;"|25.3
| |
| | style="text-align:right;"|~55
| |
| | style="text-align:right;"|109,000
| |
| | style="text-align:right;"|90,800
| |
| | style="text-align:right;"|
| |
| | style="text-align:right;"|
| |
| |-
| |
| | [[Liquefied petroleum gas]]
| |
| | style="text-align:right;"|
| |
| | style="text-align:right;"|
| |
| | style="text-align:right;"|
| |
| | style="text-align:right;"|91,300
| |
| | style="text-align:right;"|83,500
| |
| | style="text-align:right;"|
| |
| |-
| |
| | [[Hydrogen]]
| |
| | style="text-align:right;"|10.1 (at 20 kelvin)
| |
| | style="text-align:right;"|142
| |
| | style="text-align:right;"|
| |
| | style="text-align:right;"|
| |
| | style="text-align:right;"|130<ref>[http://www.hydrogenassociation.org/general/faqs.asp#octane|The National Hydrogen Association FAQs]</ref>
| |
| |}
| |
| <small>(*) Diesel fuel is not used in a gasoline engine, so its low octane rating is not an issue; the relevant metric for diesel engines is the [[cetane number]]</small>
| |
| | |
| ==See also==
| |
| {{Portal|Energy}}
| |
| {{cmn|3|
| |
| * [[Aftermarket fuel economy device]]
| |
| * [[Aviation fuel]]
| |
| * [[Biobutanol]] – replacement fuel for use in unmodified gasoline engines
| |
| * [[Filling station]]
| |
| * [[Fuel dispenser]]
| |
| * [[Gasoline and diesel usage and pricing]]
| |
| * [[Gasoline gallon equivalent]]
| |
| * [[Internal combustion engine]] (ICE)
| |
| * [[Jerrycan]]
| |
| * [[List of automotive fuel brands]]
| |
| * [[Natural-gas condensate#Drip gas]]
| |
| * [[Octane rating]]
| |
| * [[Oil price increases since 2003]]
| |
| }}
| |
| | |
| ==Notes==
| |
| {{Reflist|2}}
| |
| | |
| ==References==
| |
| {{Refbegin}}
| |
| * [http://zfacts.com/p/35.html Graph of inflation-corrected historic prices, 1970–2005. Highest in 2005]
| |
| * [http://www.ftc.gov/bcp/edu/pubs/consumer/autos/aut12.shtm: The Low-Down on High Octane Gasoline]
| |
| * [http://www.epa.gov/otaq/regs/fuels/additive/mmt_cmts.htm MMT-US EPA]
| |
| * An [http://www.gasresources.net/Introduction.htm introduction to the modern petroleum science], and to the Russian-Ukrainian theory of deep, [[abiotic petroleum]] origins.
| |
| * [http://www.straightdope.com/columns/041008.html What's the difference between premium and regular gas?] (from [[The Straight Dope]])
| |
| * [http://i-r-squared.blogspot.com/2006/09/here-comes-winter-gasoline.html "Here Comes Winter Gasoline" R-Squared Energy Blog] 14 September 2006
| |
| * [http://www.gtz.de/en/themen/umwelt-infrastruktur/transport/10285.htm International Fuel Prices 2005] with diesel and gasoline prices of 172 countries
| |
| * [http://tonto.eia.doe.gov/oog/info/gdu/gasdiesel.asp EIA — Gasoline and Diesel Fuel Update]
| |
| * [http://soc.hfac.uh.edu/artman/publish/article_375.shtml World Internet News: "Big Oil Looking for Another Government Handout", April 2006.]
| |
| * [http://journeytoforever.org/biofuel_library/ethanol_motherearth/me2.html#table Durability of various plastics: Alcohols vs. Gasoline]
| |
| * [http://www.gasresources.net/DisposalBioClaims.htm Dismissal of the Claims of a Biological Connection for Natural petroleum.]
| |
| * [http://www.epa.gov/OMSWWW/rfgecon.htm Fuel Economy Impact Analysis of RFG] i.e. reformulated gasoline. Has lower heating value data, actual energy content is higher see [[higher heating value]]
| |
| {{Refend}}
| |
| | |
| ==External links==
| |
| {{Commons|Gasoline}}
| |
| {{Wiktionary|gasoline}}
| |
| * [http://www.efoa.org EFOA]
| |
| * [http://money.cnn.com/pf/features/lists/global_gasprices/ CNN/Money: Global gas prices]
| |
| * [http://www.energy.eu/#Prices EEP: European gas prices]
| |
| * [http://cta.ornl.gov/data/index.shtml Transportation Energy Data Book]
| |
| * [http://www.energysupplylogistics.com/terminals Energy Supply Logistics Searchable Directory of US Terminals]
| |
| * [http://www.nacsonline.com/NACS/Resources/campaigns/GasPrices_2011/Pages/default.aspx 2011 NACS Annual Fuels Report]
| |
| * [http://www.benzin.sk Definition of basic terms, Graphs of Gas prices. all in Slovak language]
| |
| * [http://www.technologyreview.com/energy/23406/?a=f Gasoline from Vinegar | MIT Technology Review]
| |
| * [http://robotpig.net/__automotive/fuel.php High octane fuel, leaded and LRP gasoline — article from robotpig.net]
| |
| * [http://www.cdc.gov/niosh/npg/npgd0299.html CDC - NIOSH Pocket Guide to Chemical Hazards]
| |
| | |
| '''Images'''
| |
| * ''[http://www.archive.org/movies/details-db.php?collection=prelinger&collectionid=19334&from=collectionSpotlight Down the Gasoline Trail]'' Handy Jam Organization, 1935 (Cartoon)
| |
| | |
| {{Motor fuel}}
| |
| | |
| [[Category:IARC Group 2B carcinogens]]
| |
| [[Category:Liquid fuels]]
| |
| [[Category:Petroleum products]]
| |