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| [[File:Electrolysis of Water.png|thumb|300px|Diagram of the [[chemical equation]] of the [[electrolysis of water]], a form of water splitting.]]
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| '''Water splitting''' is the general term for a [[chemical reaction]] in which [[water]] is separated into [[oxygen]] and [[hydrogen]]. Efficient and economical water splitting would be a key technology component of a [[hydrogen economy]]. Various techniques for water splitting have been issued in water splitting patents in the United States.<ref>[http://patft.uspto.gov/netacgi/nph-Parser?Sect1=PTO2&Sect2=HITOFF&u=%2Fnetahtml%2FPTO%2Fsearch-adv.htm&r=0&p=1&f=S&l=50&Query=ttl%2F%22water+splitting%22%0D%0A&d=PTXT Patent Database Search Results: ttl/"water splitting" in US Patent Collection<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref> In [[photosynthesis]], water splitting donates electrons to power the electron transport chain in [[photosystem II]].
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| == Electrolysis ==
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| {{Main|Electrolysis of water}}
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| [[File:Electrolyser, front, B.jpg|thumb|Electrolyser front with electrical panel in foreground]]
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| [[Electrolysis of water]] is the decomposition of [[water]] (H<sub>2</sub>O) into [[oxygen]] (O<sub>2</sub>) and [[hydrogen]] gas (H<sub>2</sub>) due to an [[electricity|electric current]] being passed through the water.
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| In chemistry and manufacturing, electrolysis is a method of separating chemically bonded elements and compounds by passing an electric current through them. One important use of [[electrolysis of water]] or [[artificial photosynthesis]] ([[photoelectrolysis]] in a [[photoelectrochemical cell]]) is to produce hydrogen.
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| In [[power to gas]] the excess power or off peak power generated by wind generators or solar arrays is used for load balancing in the energy grid by injecting the hydrogen into the natural gas grid using an electrolyser.
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| [[File:Hydrogen-challenger hg.jpg|thumb|''|Electrolysis of water ship [[Hydrogen Challenger]]'']]
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| Production of hydrogen from water requires large amounts of energy and is uncompetitive with production from coal or natural gas. Potential electrical energy supplies include hydropower, wind turbines, or photovoltaic cells. Usually, the electricity consumed is more valuable than the hydrogen produced so this method has not been widely used. Other potential energy supplies include heat from nuclear reactors and light from the sun. Hydrogen can also be used to store renewable electricity when it is not needed (like the wind blowing at night) and then the hydrogen can be used to meet power needs during the day or fuel vehicles. This aspect helps make hydrogen an enabler of the wider use of renewables,<ref>[http://www2.uni-siegen.de/~pci/versuche/english/v21-2.html Electrolysis of Water]</ref> and internal combustion engines. (''See [[hydrogen economy]].'')
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| ===High pressure electrolysis===
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| {{Main|High pressure electrolysis}}
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| When the electrolysis is conducted at high pressures, the produced hydrogen gas is [[compressed hydrogen|compressed]] at around 120–200 [[bar (unit)|bar]] (1740–2900 [[Pounds per square inch|psi]]).<ref>[http://www.fz-juelich.de/scientific-report-2001/docs/patente/26_11600.pdf?web_session=e4af90eba1518be519b2c1b61fa42cfb 2001-High pressure electrolysis - The key technology for efficient H.2]</ref> By pressurising the hydrogen in the electrolyser the need for an external [[hydrogen compressor]] is eliminated, the average energy consumption for internal compression is around 3%.<ref>[http://www.fz-juelich.de/ief/ief-3/datapool/page/214/solar%20energy%2075%20469-478.pdf 2003-PHOEBUS-Pag.9]</ref>
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| ===High-temperature electrolysis===<!-- This section is linked from [[Nuclear power]] -->
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| {{Main|High-temperature electrolysis}}
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| When the energy supply is in the form of heat (solar thermal, or nuclear), the best path to hydrogen is through [[high-temperature electrolysis]] (HTE). In contrast with low-temperature electrolysis, HTE of water converts more of the initial [[heat]] energy into chemical energy (hydrogen), potentially doubling [[fuel efficiency|efficiency]] to about 50%. Because some of the energy in HTE is supplied in the form of heat, less of the energy must be converted twice (from heat to electricity, and then to chemical form), and so less energy is lost.
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| HTE processes are generally only considered in combination with a nuclear heat source, because the other non-chemical form of high-temperature heat (concentrating solar thermal) is not consistent enough to bring down the capital costs of the HTE equipment. Research into HTE and high-temperature nuclear reactors may eventually lead to a hydrogen supply that is cost-competitive with natural gas steam reforming. HTE has been demonstrated in a laboratory, but not at a commercial scale.
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| ==Photoelectrochemical water splitting==
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| {{Main|photoelectrochemical cell|artificial photosynthesis}}
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| Using electricity produced by photovoltaic systems potentially offers the cleanest way to produce hydrogen. Again, water is broken down into hydrogen and oxygen by electrolysis, but the electrical energy is obtained by a [[photoelectrochemical cell]] (PEC) process. The system is also named [[artificial photosynthesis]].<ref>[http://technology.newscientist.com/article/dn14441-electrode-lights-the-way-to-artificial-photosynthesis.html Electrode lights the way to artificial photosynthesis]</ref><ref>[http://www.technologyreview.com/Energy/21155/?a=f Solar-Power Breakthrough: Researchers have found a cheap and easy way to store the energy made by solar power]</ref><ref>http://swegene.com/pechouse-a-proposed-cell-solar-hydrogen.html</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last= del Valle |first= F. |last2= Ishikawa |first2= A. |last3= Domen |first3= K. |year= 2009|last4= Villoria De La Mano |month= May|first4= J.A.|last5= Sánchez-Sánchez|first5= M.C.|last6= González|first6= I.D.|last7= Herreras|first7= S.|last8= Mota|first8= N.|last9= Rivas|first9= M.E. |title= Influence of Zn concentration in the activity of Cd1-xZnxS solid solutions for water splitting under visible light |journal= Catalysis Today |volume= 143 |issue= 1–2 |pages= 51–59 |publisher= |issn= |pmid= |pmc= |doi= 10.1016/j.cattod.2008.09.024 |bibcode= |ref= |display-authors= 9 }}</ref>
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| ==Photocatalytic water splitting==
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| {{Main|Photocatalytic water splitting}}
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| The conversion of solar energy to hydrogen by means of water splitting process is one of the most interesting ways to achieve clean and renewable energy systems. However if this process is assisted by photocatalysts suspended directly in water instead of using photovoltaic and an electrolytic system the reaction is in just one step, therefore it can be more efficient.<ref>{{cite journal|last= del Valle |first= F. |year= 2009|last2= Álvarez Galván |month= Jun|first2= M. Consuelo|last3= Del Valle|first3= F.|last4= Villoria De La Mano|first4= José A.|last5= Fierro|first5= José L. G. |title= Water Splitting on Semiconductor Catalysts under Visible-Light Irradiation |journal= Chemsuschem |volume= 2 |issue= 6 |pages= 471–485 |publisher= [[CHEMSUSCHEM]] |issn= |pmid= 19536754|pmc= |bibcode= |doi=10.1002/cssc.200900018|ref= |displayauthors= 1 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last= del Valle |first= F. |year= 2009|last2= Del Valle |month= |first2= F.|last3= Villoria De La Mano|first3= J.A.|last4= Álvarez-Galván|first4= M.C.|last5= Fierro|first5= J.L.G.|title= Photocatalytic water splitting under visible Light: concept and materials requirements |journal= Advances in Chemical Engineering |volume= 36 |issue= |pages= 111–143 |publisher= |issn= |pmid= |pmc= |doi= 10.1016/S0065-2377(09)00404-9 |bibcode= |ref= CONACYT Mexico |displayauthors= 1 |series= Advances in Chemical Engineering |isbn= 9780123747631 }}</ref>
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| == Photobiological water splitting ==
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| [[File:Algae hydrogen production.jpg|frame|An [[algae bioreactor]] for hydrogen production.]]
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| {{Main|Biological hydrogen production (Algae)}}
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| Biological hydrogen can be produced in an [[algae]] [[bioreactor]]. In the late 1990s it was discovered that if the algae are deprived of [[sulfur]] it will switch from the production of [[oxygen]], i.e. normal [[photosynthesis]], to the production of hydrogen. It seems that the production is now economically feasible by surpassing the 7–10 percent energy efficiency (the conversion of sunlight into hydrogen) barrier.<ref>[http://www.hydrogen.energy.gov/pdfs/progress08/ii_f_2_melis.pdf DOE 2008 Report 25 %]</ref> with a hydrogen production rate of 10-12 ml per liter culture per hour.<ref>[http://www.apec-bioh2.org/Download/Renewable%20Energy%20Technology%20and%20Prospect%20on%20Biohydrogen%20Study%20in%20Thailand_Peesamai%20Jenvanitpanjakul.pdf Biohydrogen study in Thailand]</ref>
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| ==Thermal decomposition of water==
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| {{Main|Thermochemical cycle}}
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| [[thermolysis|Thermal decomposition]], also called [[thermolysis]], is defined as a chemical reaction whereby a chemical substance breaks up into at least two chemical substances when heated. At elevated temperatures water molecules split into their atomic components [[hydrogen]] and [[oxygen]]. For example at 2200 °C about three percent of all H<sub>2</sub>O molecules are dissociated into various combinations of hydrogen and oxygen atoms, mostly H, H<sub>2</sub>, O, O<sub>2</sub>, and OH. Other reaction products like H<sub>2</sub>O<sub>2</sub> or HO<sub>2</sub> remain minor. At the very high temperature of 3000 °C more than half of the water molecules are decomposed, but at ambient temperatures only one molecule in 100 trillion dissociates by the effect of heat. However, catalysts can accelerate the dissociation of the water molecules at lower temperatures.
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| Thermal water splitting has been investigated for hydrogen production since the 1960s.<ref>{{cite journal |journal=Int J Hydrogen Energy |volume=26 |year=2001 |pages=185ff }}</ref> The high temperatures needed to obtain substantial amounts of hydrogen impose severe requirements on the materials used in any thermal water splitting device. For industrial or commercial application, the material constraints have limited the success of applications for hydrogen production from direct thermal water splitting and with few exceptions most recent developments are in the area of the [[catalysis]] and [[thermochemical cycle]]s.
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| ===Nuclear-thermal===
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| Some prototype [[Generation IV reactor]]s operate at 850 to 1000 [[degrees Celsius]], considerably hotter than existing commercial [[nuclear power]] plants. [[General Atomics]] predicts that hydrogen produced in a High Temperature Gas Cooled Reactor (HTGR) would cost $1.53/[[kilogram|kg]]. In 2003, steam reforming of natural gas yielded hydrogen at $1.40/kg. At {{As of|2005|alt=2005}} gas prices, hydrogen cost $2.70/kg.{{Citation needed|date=February 2007}} Hence, just within the United States, a savings of tens of billions of dollars per year is possible with a nuclear-powered supply. Much of this savings would translate into reduced oil and natural gas imports.
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| One side benefit of a nuclear reactor that produces both [[electricity]] and hydrogen is that it can shift production between the two. For instance, the plant might produce electricity during the day and hydrogen at night, matching its electrical generation profile to the daily variation in demand. If the hydrogen can be produced economically, this scheme would compete favorably with existing [[grid energy storage]] schemes. What is more, there is sufficient hydrogen demand in the [[United States]] that all daily peak generation could be handled by such plants.<ref>http://www.dis.anl.gov/ceeesa/documents/NuclearHydrogen_ANL0530Final.pdf</ref> However, [[Generation IV reactor]]s are not expected until 2030 and it is uncertain if they can compete by then in safety and supply with the [[distributed generation]] concept.{{or|date=November 2011}}
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| ===Solar-thermal===
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| The high temperatures necessary to split water can be achieved through the use of [[concentrating solar power]]. [[Hydrosol-2]] is a 100-kilowatt pilot plant at the [[Plataforma Solar de Almería]] in [[Spain]] which uses sunlight to obtain the required 800 to 1,200 °C to split water. Hydrosol II has been in operation since 2008. The design of this 100-kilowatt pilot plant is based on a modular concept. As a result, it may be possible that this technology could be readily scaled up to megawatt range by multiplying the available reactor units and by connecting the plant to [[heliostat]] fields (fields of sun-tracking mirrors) of a suitable size.<ref>http://www.dlr.de/en/desktopdefault.aspx/tabid-1/86_read-14380/</ref>
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| An interesting approach to solar thermal hydrogen production is proposed by H2 Power Systems.<ref>http://www.h2powersystems.com</ref> Material constraints due to the required high temperatures above 2200 °C are reduced by the design of a membrane reactor with simultaneous extraction of hydrogen and oxygen that exploits a defined thermal gradient and the fast diffusion of hydrogen. With concentrated sunlight as heat source and only water in the reaction chamber, the produced gases are very clean with the only possible contaminant being water. A "Solar Water Cracker" with a concentrator of about 100 m² can produce almost one kilogram of hydrogen per sunshine hour.
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| == Chemical production ==
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| A variety of materials react with water or acids to release hydrogen. Such methods are non-sustainable. In terms of stoichiometry, these methods resemble the steam reforming process. The great difference between such chemical methods and steam reforming (which is also a "chemical method"), is that the necessary reduced metals do not exist naturally and require considerable energy for their production. For example, in the laboratory strong acids react with [[zinc]] metal in [[Kipp's apparatus]].
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| In the presence of [[sodium hydroxide]], [[aluminium]] and its alloys react with water to generate hydrogen gas.<ref>{{cite journal|last= Belitskus |first= David |date=August 1970 |title= Reaction of Aluminum with Sodium Hydroxide Solution as a Source of Hydrogen |journal= Journal of the Electrochemical Society |volume= 117 |issue= 8 |pages= 1097–1099 |publisher= [[The Electrochemical Society|ECS]] |location= [[Pennington, New Jersey]] |issn= 0013-4651 |pmid= |pmc= |doi= 10.1149/1.2407730 |bibcode= |url= |ref= }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last= Soler |first= Lluís |last2= Macanás |first2= Jorge |last3= Muñoz |first3= Maria |last4= Casado |first4= Juan |year= 2007 |month= |title= Aluminum and aluminum alloys as sources of hydrogen for fuel cell applications |journal= Journal of Power Sources |volume= 169 |issue= 1 |pages= 144–149 |publisher= [[Elsevier]] |issn= |pmid= |pmc= |doi= 10.1016/j.jpowsour.2007.01.080 |bibcode= |url= http://www.scopus.com/record/display.url?eid=2-s2.0-34248401100&view=basic&origin=inward&txGid=7tmJ4r3OwfBeSG1wyiRAiCi%3a4 |accessdate= |ref= }}</ref> Unfortunately, due to its energetic inefficiency, aluminium is expensive and usable only for low volume hydrogen generation. Also high amounts of waste heats must be disposed.
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| Although other metals can perform the same reaction, aluminium is among the most promising materials for future development<ref>{{cite journal|last= Wang |first= H.Z. |last2= Leung |first2= D.Y.C. |last3= Leung |first3= M.K.H. |last4= Ni |first4= M. |year= 2008 |month= |title= A review on hydrogen production using aluminum and aluminum alloys |journal= Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews |volume= 13 |issue= 4 |pages= 845–853 |publisher= [[Elsevier]] |issn= |pmid= |pmc= |doi= 10.1016/j.rser.2008.02.009 |bibcode= |url= http://www.scopus.com/record/display.url?eid=2-s2.0-60049096697&view=basic&origin=inward&txGid=7tmJ4r3OwfBeSG1wyiRAiCi%3a2 |accessdate= |ref= }}</ref> because it is safer, cheaper and easier to transport than some other hydrogen storage materials like [[sodium borohydride]].
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| The initial reaction (1) consumes [[sodium hydroxide]] and produces both hydrogen gas and an [[aluminate]] byproduct. Upon reaching its saturation limit, the aluminate compound decomposes (2) into sodium hydroxide and a crystalline precipitate of [[aluminum hydroxide]]. This process is similar to the reactions inside an [[aluminium battery]].
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| :: '''(1)''' Al + 3 H<sub>2</sub>O + NaOH → NaAl(OH)<sub>4</sub> + 1.5 H<sub>2</sub>
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| :: '''(2)''' NaAl(OH)<sub>4</sub> → NaOH + Al(OH)<sub>3</sub>
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| Overall:
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| :: Al + 3 H<sub>2</sub>O → Al(OH)<sub>3</sub> + 1.5 H<sub>2</sub>
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| In this process, aluminium functions as a compact [[hydrogen storage]] material because 1 kg of aluminum can produce up to 0.111 kg of hydrogen (or 11.1%) from water. When employed in a [[fuel cell]], that hydrogen can also produce electricity, recovering half of the water previously consumed.<ref>{{cite book|last1= Amendola |first1= Steven C. |last2= Binder |first2= Michael |first3= Michael T. |last3= Kelly |first4= Phillip J. |last4= Petillo |first5= Stefanie L. |last5= Sharp-Goldman |editor1-first= Catherine E. |editor1-last= Grégoire Padró |editor2-first= Francis |editor2-last= Lau |title= Advances in Hydrogen Energy |url= |year= 2000 |month= |publisher= [[Kluwer Academic Publishers]] |location= New York |isbn= 978-0-306-46922-0 |oclc= |doi= 10.1007/0-306-46922-7_6 |pages= 69–86 |chapter= A Novel Catalytic Process for Generating Hydrogen Gas from Aqueous Borohydride Solutions |chapterurl= |ref= |bibcode= }}</ref> The U.S. [[United States Department of Energy|Department of Energy]] has outlined its goals for a compact hydrogen storage device<ref>http://www.sc.doe.gov/bes/hydrogen.pdf</ref> and researchers are trying many approaches, such as by using a combination of aluminum and [[sodium borohydride|NaBH<sub>4</sub>]], to achieve these goals.<ref>{{cite journal|last= Soler |first= Lluís |last2= Macanás |first2= Jorge |last3= Muñoz |first3= Maria |last4= Casado |first4= Juan |year= 2007 |month= |title= Synergistic hydrogen generation from aluminum, aluminum alloys and sodium borohydride in aqueous solutions |journal= International Journal of Hydrogen Energy |volume= 32 |issue= 18 |pages= 4702–4710 |publisher= [[Elsevier]] |issn= 0360-3199 |pmid= |pmc= |doi= 10.1016/j.ijhydene.2007.06.019 |bibcode= |url= http://www.scopus.com/record/display.url?eid=2-s2.0-36549086695&view=basic&origin=inward&txGid=7tmJ4r3OwfBeSG1wyiRAiCi%3a6 |accessdate= |ref= }}</ref>
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| Since the oxidation of aluminum is exothermic, these reactions can operate under mild temperatures and pressures, providing a stable and compact source of hydrogen. This [[chemical reduction]] process is specially suitable for back-up, remote or marine applications. While the [[Passivation (chemistry)|passivation]] of aluminum would normally slow this reaction considerably,<ref>{{cite book|last1= Stockburger |first1= D. |last2= Stannard |first2= J.H. |first3= B.M.L. |last3= Rao |first4= W. |last4= Kobasz |first5= C.D. |last5= Tuck |editor1-first= Dennis A.|editor1-last= Corrigan |editor2-first= Supramaniam |editor2-last= Srinivasan |title= Hydrogen storage materials, batteries, and electrochemistry |url= |year= 1992 |month= |publisher= [[The Electrochemical Society|ECS]] |location= [[Pennington, New Jersey]] |isbn= 978-1-56677-006-4 |oclc= 25662899 |doi= |pages= 431–444 |chapter= |chapterurl= |ref= |bibcode= }}</ref> its negative effects can be minimized by changing several experimental parameters such as temperature, alkali concentration, physical form of the aluminum, and solution composition.
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| ==Research==
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| {{Main|Photocatalytic water splitting}}
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| Research is being conducted over [[photocatalysis]],<ref>Strategies for the Development of Visible-light-driven Photocatalysts for Water Splitting Akihiko Kudo, Hideki Kato1 and Issei Tsuji Chemistry Letters Vol. 33 (2004), No. 12 p.1534</ref> the acceleration of a photoreaction in the presence of a catalyst. Its comprehension has been made possible ever since the discovery of water electrolysis by means of the titanium dioxide. [[Artificial photosynthesis]] is a research field that attempts to replicate the natural process of photosynthesis, converting sunlight, water and carbon dioxide into carbohydrates and oxygen. Recently, this has been successful in splitting water into hydrogen and oxygen using an artificial compound called [[Nafion]].<ref>[http://www.eurekalert.org/pub_releases/2008-08/mu-mtl081408.php]</ref>
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| [[High-temperature electrolysis]] (also HTE or [[steam electrolysis]]) is a method currently being investigated for the production of hydrogen from water with oxygen as a by-product. Other research includes [[thermolysis]] on defective [[carbon]] substrates, thus making hydrogen production possible at temperatures just under 1000 °C.<ref>{{cite journal
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| | author = Kostov, M. K.; Santiso, E. E.; George, A. M.; Gubbins, K. E.; and Nardelli, M. Buongiorno
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| | title = Dissociation of Water on Defective Carbon Substrates
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| | publisher = Physical Review Letters
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| | year = 2005
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| | url =http://scitation.aip.org/getpdf/servlet/GetPDFServlet?filetype=pdf&id=PRLTAO000095000013136105000001&idtype=cvips&prog=normal
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| | format = [[PDF]]
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| | accessdate = 2007-11-05 }}</ref>
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| The [[iron oxide cycle]] is a series of [[Thermochemistry|thermochemical]] processes used to [[Hydrogen production|produce hydrogen]]. The iron oxide cycle consists of two [[chemical reaction]]s whose net reactant is [[water]] and whose net products are [[hydrogen]] and [[oxygen]]. All other chemicals are recycled. The iron oxide process requires an efficient source of heat.
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| The [[sulfur-iodine cycle]] (S-I cycle) is a series of [[Thermochemistry|thermochemical]] processes used to [[Hydrogen production|produce hydrogen]]. The S-I cycle consists of three [[chemical reaction]]s whose net reactant is water and whose net products are [[hydrogen]] and [[oxygen]]. All other chemicals are recycled. The S-I process requires an efficient source of heat.
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| More than 352 [[thermochemistry|thermochemical]] cycles have been described for water splitting or [[thermolysis]].,<ref>[http://www.hydrogen.energy.gov/pdfs/review06/pd_10_weimer.pdf 353 Thermochemical cycles]</ref><ref>[http://shgr.unlv.edu/stchNew/source/login.asp UNLV Thermochemical cycle automated scoring database (public)]</ref> These cycles promise to produce hydrogen oxygen from water and heat without using electricity.<ref name="Developmentof">[http://www.hydrogen.energy.gov/pdfs/review05/pd28_weimer.pdf Development of solar-powered thermochemical production of hydrogen from water]</ref> Since all the input energy for such processes is heat, they can be more efficient than high-temperature electrolysis. This is because the efficiency of electricity production is inherently limited. Thermochemical production of hydrogen using chemical energy from coal or natural gas is generally not considered, because the direct chemical path is more efficient.
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| For all the thermochemical processes, the summary reaction is that of the decomposition of water:
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| :<math> 2 \text{ } H_2 O \text{ } \stackrel {Heat} {\rightleftharpoons} \text{ } 2 \text{ } H_2 + \text{ } O_2</math>
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| All other reagents are recycled. None of the thermochemical hydrogen production processes have been demonstrated at production levels, although several have been demonstrated in laboratories.
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| There is also research into the viability of nanoparticles and catalysts to lower the temperature at which water splits.<ref>[http://www.nanoptek.com/ Naoptek]</ref><ref>http://www.treehugger.com/files/2008/07/hydrogen-production-breakthrough-from-mit-a-giant-leap.php</ref>
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| Recently [[Metal-Organic Framework]] (MOF)-based materials have been shown to be a highly promising candidate for water splitting with cheap, first row transition metals.<ref>Das et. al. Angew. Chem. Int. Ed., 2013, 52, 7224-7227 (http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/anie.201301327/abstract)</ref>;<ref>Hansen and Das, Energy & Environ Sci.(http://pubs.rsc.org/en/content/articlelanding/2013/ee/c3ee43040e#!divAbstract)</ref>
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| Research is concentrated on the following cycles:<ref name="Developmentof" />
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| {|class="wikitable"
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| ![[Thermochemistry|Thermochemical cycle]] !! [[Lower heating value|LHV]] Efficiency !! Temperature (°C/F)
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| |-
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| |[[Cerium(IV) oxide-cerium(III) oxide cycle]] (CeO<sub>2</sub>/Ce<sub>2</sub>O<sub>3</sub>) ||? %||{{convert|2000|°C|°F}}
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| |[[Hybrid sulfur cycle]] (HyS) ||43 %||{{convert|900|°C|°F}}
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| |[[Sulfur iodine cycle]] (S-I cycle) ||38 %||{{convert|900|°C|°F}}
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| |[[Cadmium sulfate cycle]] ||46 %||{{convert|1000|°C|°F}}
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| |[[Barium sulfate cycle]] ||39 %||{{convert|1000|°C|°F}}
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| |[[Manganese sulfate cycle]] ||35 %||{{convert|1100|°C|°F}}
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| |[[Zinc zinc-oxide cycle]] (Zn/ZnO) ||44 %||{{convert|1900|°C|°F}}
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| |[[Hybrid cadmium cycle]] ||42 %||{{convert|1600|°C|°F}}
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| |[[Cadmium carbonate cycle]] ||43 %||{{convert|1600|°C|°F}}
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| |[[Iron oxide cycle]] (Fe3O4/FeO)||42 %||{{convert|2200|°C|°F}}
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| |[[Sodium manganese cycle]] ||49 %||{{convert|1560|°C|°F}}
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| |[[Nickel manganese ferrite cycle]] ||43 %||{{convert|1800|°C|°F}}
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| |[[Zinc manganese ferrite cycle]] ||43 %||{{convert|1800|°C|°F}}
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| |[[Copper-chlorine cycle]] (Cu-Cl) ||41 %||{{convert|550|°C|°F}}
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| |}
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| ==Patents== | |
| [[File:Vion radiant energy US Patent 28793.png|thumb|upright|[[Atmospheric electricity]] utilization for the chemical reaction in which water is separated into oxygen and hydrogen. (Image via: Vion, US patent 28793. June 1860.)]]
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| * Vion, {{US patent|28793}}, "Improved method of using atmospheric electricity", June 1860.
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| == See also ==
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| *[[Photocatalytic water splitting]]
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| *[[Water gas shift reaction]]
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| == References ==
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| {{Reflist}}
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| {{DEFAULTSORT:Water Splitting}}
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| [[Category:Environmental chemistry]]
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| [[Category:Fuels]]
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| [[Category:Hydrogen production]]
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