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[[Image:Diamond Anvil Cell - Cross Section.svg|Diamond Anvil Cell – Cross Section|250px|thumb|Schematics of the core of a diamond anvil cell. The diamond size is a few millimeters at most]]
{{Infobox person
|name = Olinto De Pretto
|image = OlintoDePretto.JPG
|caption = Olinto De Pretto
|birth_date = {{Birth date|df=yes|1857|4|26}}
|birth_place = [[Schio]], Province of [[Vicenza]], [[italy]]
|death_date = 1921 (age 64)
|ethnicity = [[Italian people|Italian]]
|residence = Schio in Province of Vicenza Italy
|citizenship = Italian
|fields = {{Unbulleted list|[[Physics]]|[[Geology]]}}
|workplaces = {{Unbulleted list|Superior School of Agriculture, [[Milano]]|mechanical foundry mill|Alpinistic Circle}}
|alma_mater = Superior School of Agriculture, Milano
|academic_advisors = Gaetano Cantoni
|known_for = {{Unbulleted list|First [[derived]] E&#61;mc<sup>2</sup>|[[Mass-energy equivalence]]|Radioactive Decay|Effects of [[glaciers]] on the formation of [[mountains]]|[[Agronomics]]}}
|footnotes = <!-- for any footnotes needed to clarify entries above -->
}}
'''Olinto De Pretto''' (1857–1921) was an [[Italy|Italian]] [[industrialist]] and [[Geology|geologist]] from [[Schio]], [[Vicenza]]. There are claims – most prominent by the Italian mathematician [[Umberto Bartocci]] – that De Pretto may have been the first person to derive the Energy-Mass-Equivalence <math>E=mc^2</math>, generally attributed to [[Albert Einstein]]. He suggested that radioactive decay of [[uranium]] and [[thorium]] was an example of mass transforming into energy.


A '''diamond anvil cell''' (DAC) is a device used in scientific experiments. It allows compressing a small (sub-[[millimeter]] sized) piece of material to [[Orders of magnitude (pressure)|extreme pressure]]s, which can exceed 300 [[Pascal (unit)|gigapascals]] (3,000,000  [[bar (unit)|bars]] / 2,960,770 [[atmosphere (unit)|atmospheres]]).<ref name=Hemley1998>{{cite doi|10.1063/1.882374}}</ref>
==Early life==
Olinto De Pretto was born on April 26, 1857 in Schio in the province of [[Vicenza]] in northern [[Italy]]. Olinto was the sixth of seven children (three boys, four girls). His mother was Angelica Boschetti (1822–1905). His father, Pietro De Pretto (1810–1891), was an [[architect]] whose hobbies included [[astronomy]] and [[geology]], two studies Olinto would later take up.


The device has been used to recreate the pressure existing deep inside [[planet]]s, creating materials and [[Phase (matter)|phases]] not observed under normal conditions. Notable examples include the non-molecular [[Ice#Phases|ice X]],<ref>{{cite journal|title = Compression of ice to 210 gigapascals: Infrared evidence for a symmetric hydrogen-bonded phase|journal = [[Science (journal)|Science]]|volume = 273|pages = 218–230|date=Jul 1986|doi = 10.1126/science.273.5272.218|pmid = 8662500|issue = 5272|bibcode = 1996Sci...273..218G|last1 = Goncharov|first1 = A. F.|last2 = Struzhkin|first2 = V. V.|last3 = Somayazulu|first3 = M. S.|last4 = Hemley|first4 = R. J.|last5 = Mao|first5 = H. K. }}</ref> polymeric nitrogen<ref>{{cite journal|title = Semiconducting non-molecular nitrogen up to 240 GPa and its low-pressure stability|journal = [[Nature (journal)|Nature]]|volume = 411|date=May 2001|pages = 170–174|doi = 10.1038/35075531|pmid = 11346788|last1 = Eremets|first1 = MI|last2 = Hemley|first2 = RJ|last3 = Mao|first3 = Hk|last4 = Gregoryanz|first4 = E|issue = 6834|bibcode = 2001Natur.411..170E }}</ref> and metallic [[xenon]] (an inert gas at lower pressures).
He attended the Superior School of Agriculture in Milano where he studied [[agriculture]] and [[geology]] with a major in [[Agronomics]]. He graduated in 1879 with a degree in Agronomics. Immediately upon graduation he became a university assistant to [[:it:Gaetano Cantoni (agronomo)|Professor Gaetano Cantoni]], a [[Dean (education)|Dean]] of the agricultural school. Together they developed methods that helped modernize Italian agriculture by improving methods of crop rotation and analyzing soil chemistry.[http://www.itastreviglio.it/storiaInglese.php]


A DAC consists of two opposing [[diamond]]s with a sample compressed between the [[culet]]s. Pressure may be monitored using a reference material whose behavior under pressure is known. Common pressure standards include [[ruby]]<ref name=Forman1972>{{Cite journal|last1 = Forman|first1 = Richard A.|last2 = Piermarini|first2 = Gasper J.|last3 = Barnett|first3 = J. Dean|last4 = Block|first4 = Stanley|year = 1972|title = Pressure Measurement Made by the Utilization of Ruby Sharp-Line Luminescence|journal = Science|volume = 176|issue = 4032|pages = 284–5|doi = 10.1126/science.176.4032.284|pmid = 17791916|bibcode = 1972Sci...176..284F }}</ref> [[fluorescence]], and various [[Crystal structure|structurally]] simple metals, such as [[copper]] or [[platinum]].<ref name="isbn0-12-408950-X">{{cite book |author=Kinslow, Ray; Cable, A. J. |title=High-velocity impact phenomena |publisher=Academic Press |location=Boston |year=1970|isbn=0-12-408950-X}}</ref> The uniaxial pressure supplied by the DAC may be transformed into uniform [[Fluid statics#Hydrostatic pressure|hydrostatic pressure]] using a pressure transmitting medium, such as [[argon]], [[xenon]], [[hydrogen]], [[helium]], [[paraffin oil]] or a mixture of [[methanol]] and [[ethanol]].<ref name="jay1">{{cite journal|author = Jayaraman, A. |title = Ultrahigh pressures|journal = Reviews of Scientific Instruments|pages = 1013|year = 1986|issue = 6|doi = 10.1063/1.1138654|volume = 57|bibcode = 1986RScI...57.1013J }}</ref> The pressure-transmitting medium is enclosed by a gasket and the two diamond anvils. The sample can be viewed through the diamonds and illuminated by [[X-rays]] and visible light. In this way, [[X-ray diffraction]] and [[X-ray fluorescence|fluorescence]]; [[optical absorption]] and [[photoluminescence]]; [[Mössbauer spectroscopy|Mössbauer]], [[Raman scattering|Raman]] and [[Brillouin scattering]]; [[Positron annihilation spectroscopy|positron annihilation]] and other signals can be measured from materials under high pressure. Magnetic and microwave fields can be applied externally to the cell allowing [[nuclear magnetic resonance]], [[electron paramagnetic resonance]] and other magnetic measurements.<ref>{{cite journal|doi=10.1063/1.1143596|title=Enhanced sensitivity for high-pressure EPR using dielectric resonators|year=1992|last1=Bromberg|first1=Steven E.|journal=Review of Scientific Instruments|volume=63|issue=7|pages=3670|last2=Chan|first2=I. Y.|bibcode = 1992RScI...63.3670B }}</ref> Attaching [[electrodes]] to the sample allows electrical and [[Magnetoresistance|magnetoelectrical]] measurements as well as heating up the sample to a few thousand degrees. Much higher temperatures (up to 7000 K)<ref>{{cite journal|author=Chandra Shekar, N. V. ''et al.''|title=Laser-heated diamond-anvil cell (LHDAC) in materials science research|url=http://www.jmst.org/EN/abstract/abstract6706.shtml|journal=J. Mater. Sci. Techn.|volume=19|year=2003|page=518}}</ref> can be achieved with laser-induced heating,<ref>{{cite journal|author=Subramanian, N. et al. |title=Development of laser-heated diamond anvil cell facility for synthesis of novel materials|url=http://www.ias.ac.in/currsci/jul252006/175.pdf |journal=Current Science|volume= 91 |year=2006|page= 175}}</ref> and cooling down to millikelvins has been demonstrated.<ref name="jay1"/>
When Cantoni died in 1887, Olinto left the university and became a director at a mechanical [[foundry mill]] owned by his older brother Silvio, where he worked for the rest of his life.[http://www.cartesio-episteme.net/fis/depret-bombay.htm]


==Principle==
==Early scientific research and papers==
In 1888, as a result of his research with his brother Augusto, he published his first paper, "The Influence of the Raising and the Degradation of [[Mountains]] on the Development of [[Glaciers]]". In 1892, along with his brothers Augusto and Silvio they founded the Alpinistic Circle with Silvio as the first president. In 1896 the Bulletin of the Italian Society of Geology republished his article as "The Degradation of Mountains and Its Influence on Glaciers".[http://www.cartesio-episteme.net/fis/depret-bombay.htm]


The operation of the diamond anvil cell relies on a simple principle:
In 1898, his paper titled "Glacial Epoch and [[Orology|Orografical]] Theory" was published in the Bulletin of the Italian Alpine Club.


:<math>p=\frac{F}{A}</math>
In 1899, he published "Geological Signs in the Surroundings of Schio".


where ''p'' is the pressure, ''F'' the applied force, and ''A'' the area.
==Contributions to physics and energy-mass-equivalence==
From 1899 to 1903 De Pretto began to study the emerging field of [[nuclear physics]] and its relationship to astronomy. He focused on the theory of [[luminiferous aether|aether]], a hypothetical substance at that time believed to fill all space.


Therefore high pressure can be achieved by applying a moderate [[force]] on a sample with a small area, rather than applying a large force on a large area. In order to minimize deformation and failure of the [[anvil]]s that apply the force, they must be made from a very hard and virtually incompressible material, such as diamond.
As a result of his research on November 29, 1903 De Pretto published a 62-page paper in the ''Atti del Reale Istituto Veneto di Scienze, Lettere ed Arti'', vol LXIII (''Proceedings of the Royal Veneto Institute of Science, Letters and Arts'') entitled "''Ipotesi dell'Etere nella Vita dell'Universo''" ("''Hypothesis of [[Aether theories|Aether]] in the Life of the Universe''"). The paper was endorsed by the famous astronomer [[Giovanni Schiaparelli]]. De Pretto's paper was later included in the proceedings of an Italian scientific institute The Royal Veneto Institute of Science.<ref>{{Cite journal|author=Olinto De Pretto|title=Ipotesi dell'etere nella vita dell'universo (Hypothesis of Aether in the Life of the Universe)|journal="Reale Istituto Veneto di Scienze, Lettere ed Arti" (The Royal Veneto Institute of Science, Letters and Arts)|year=1903|volume=LXIII|issue=II|pages=439–500|url=http://www.cartesio-episteme.net/st/mem-depr-vf.htm}} (accepted November 23, 1903 and printed February 27, 1904)</ref>


==History==
This theory was similar to [[Samuel Tolver Preston]]'s 1875 hypothesis that matter and energy might be interchangeable. De Pretto's theory was based on his [[hypothesis]] that a mass traveling at velocity ''v'' has the [[potential energy]]<ref>{{cite book |title=Challenging Modern Physics: Questioning Einstein's Relativity Theories
[[image:First diamond anvil cell.jpg|thumb|250px|The first diamond anvil cell in the NIST museum of Gaithersburg. Shown in the image above is the part which compresses the central assembly.]]
|first1=Al |last1=Kelly |publisher=Universal-Publishers |year=2005 |isbn=1-58112-437-6 |page=18 |url=http://books.google.com/books?id=XVLmihZnsvUC}}, [http://books.google.com/books?id=XVLmihZnsvUC&pg=PA18 Extract of page 18] </ref> (''forza viva'') proportional to mv<sup>2</sup> (the exact formula is ½mv<sup>2</sup>). In the section of his paper headed ''Energy of the Ether and Potential Energy in Matter'', De Pretto wrote:


[[Percy Williams Bridgman]], the great pioneer of high-pressure research during the first half of the 20th century, revolutionized the field of high pressures with his development of an opposed [[anvil]] device with small flat areas that were pressed one against the other with a lever-arm. The anvils were made of [[tungsten carbide]] (WC). This device could achieve [[pressure]] of a few [[Pascal (unit)|gigapascals]], and was used in [[electrical resistance]] and [[compressibility]] measurements. The invention of the diamond anvil cell in the late 1950s at the [[National Bureau of Standards]] (NBS) by Weir, Lippincott, Van Valkenburg, and Bunting further refined the process.<ref>[http://nvl.nist.gov/pub/nistpubs/sp958-lide/100-103.pdf The Diamond Anvil Pressure Cell]. NIST</ref> The principles of the DAC are similar to the Bridgman anvils but in order to achieve the highest possible pressures without breaking the [[anvil]]s, they were made of the hardest known material: a single [[crystal]] [[diamond]]. The first prototypes were limited in their pressure range and there was not a reliable way to [[calibrate]] the pressure. During the following decades DACs have been successively refined, the most important innovations being the use of [[gasket]]s and the [[ruby]] pressure calibration. The DAC evolved to be the most powerful lab device for generating static high pressure.<ref>{{cite journal|author = Block, S. and Piermarini, G. |title = The Diamond Cell Stimulates High-Pressure Research|journal = Physics Today|volume = 29|pages = 44|doi = 10.1063/1.3023899|year = 1976 | issue=9}}</ref> The range of static pressure attainable today extends to the estimated pressures at the Earth's center (~360 GPa).
:''Matter uses and stores energy as inertia, just like a steam engine that uses the energy in steam and stores energy in inertia as potential energy[... ] All components of a body are animated by infinitesimal but rapid movements equal to perhaps the ''vibration of the ether''. It must be concluded that the matter in any body contains the sum of the energy represented by the entire mass of that body if it could move through space with the speed of a single particle.''<ref>{{cite book |first1=Al |last1=Kelly}}, [http://books.google.com/books?id=XVLmihZnsvUC&pg=PA17 Extract of page 17] </ref>


==Components==
By theorizing "vibration of the ether", De Pretto asserted that mass is vibrating energy and that mass and energy are therefore interchangeable. He then speculated that ordinary matter may be considered to be vibrating at the [[speed of light]] c. 
There are many different DAC designs but all have four main components:


# The [[force]]-generating device — relies on the operation of either a [[lever]] arm, tightening [[screw (simple machine)|screw]]s, or [[pneumatic]] or [[hydraulic]] [[pressure]] applied to a membrane. In all cases the [[force]] is [[uniaxial]] and is applied to the tables (bases) of the two [[anvil]]s
According to De Pretto,  
# Two opposing [[diamond]] [[anvil]]s — made of high [[Gemstone|gem]] quality, flawless diamonds, usually with 16 facets. They typically weigh 1/8 to 1/3 [[Carat (unit)|carat]] (25 to 70&nbsp;mg). The culet (tip) is ground and polished to a hexadecagonal surface parallel to the table. The culets of the two [[diamond]]s face one another, and must be perfectly [[parallel (geometry)|parallel]] in order to produce uniform [[pressure]] and to prevent dangerous [[Strain (materials science)|strains]]. Specially selected anvils are required for specific measurements—for example, low diamond absorption and luminescence is required in corresponding experiments.
# [[Gasket]] — a [[foil (chemistry)|foil]] of ~0.2&nbsp;mm thickness (before compression) that separates the two culets. It has an important role: to contain the sample with a [[hydrostatic fluid]] in a cavity between the [[diamond]]s, and to prevent anvil failure by supporting the [[diamond]] tips, thus reducing [[stress (physics)|stresses]] at the edges of the culet. Standard gasket materials are hard metals and their alloys, such as [[stainless steel]], [[Inconel]], [[rhenium]], [[iridium]] or [[tungsten carbide]]. They are not transparent to X-rays, and thus if X-ray illumination through the gasket is required then lighter materials, such as [[beryllium]], [[boron nitride]],<ref>{{cite journal|doi=10.1063/1.2917409|pmid=18513075|year=2008|last1=Funamori|first1=N|last2=Sato|first2=T|title=A cubic boron nitride gasket for diamond-anvil experiments|volume=79|issue=5|pages=053903|journal=The Review of scientific instruments|bibcode = 2008RScI...79e3903F }}</ref> [[boron]]<ref>{{cite journal|doi=10.1063/1.1621065|title=Amorphous boron gasket in diamond anvil cell research|year=2003|last1=Lin|first1=Jung-Fu|journal=Review of Scientific Instruments|volume=74|issue=11|pages=4732|last2=Shu|first2=Jinfu|last3=Mao|first3=Ho-Kwang|last4=Hemley|first4=Russell J.|last5=Shen|first5=Guoyin|bibcode = 2003RScI...74.4732L }}</ref> or [[diamond]]<ref>{{cite journal|doi=10.1063/1.1343864|title=A diamond gasket for the laser-heated diamond anvil cell|year=2001|last1=Zou|first1=Guangtian|journal=Review of Scientific Instruments|volume=72|issue=2|pages=1298|last2=Ma|first2=Yanzhang|last3=Mao|first3=Ho-Kwang|last4=Hemley|first4=Russell J.|last5=Gramsch|first5=Stephen A.|bibcode = 2001RScI...72.1298Z }}</ref> are used as a gasket.
# Pressure-transmitting medium — homogenizes the pressure. Methanol:ethanol 4:1 mixture is rather popular because of ease of handling. However, above ~20 GPa it turns into a glass and thus the pressure becomes nonhydrostatic.<ref name="jay1"/> [[Argon]], [[hydrogen]] and [[helium]] are usable up to the highest pressures, and ingenious techniques have been developed to seal them in the cell.<ref name="jay1"/>


==Uses==
:''The matter of any body contains within it a sum of energy represented by the entire mass of the body[... ] Nobody will easily admit that, stored in a latent state, in any kilogram of matter, completely hidden to all our investigations, hides such a sum of energy, equivalent to the amount that can be extracted from [burning] millions and millions of kilograms of coal."''
Prior to the invention of the diamond anvil cell, static high-pressure apparatus required large hydraulic presses which weighed several tons and required large specialized laboratories. The simplicity and compactness of the DAC meant that it could be accommodated in a wide variety of experiments. Some contemporary DACs can easily fit into a [[cryostat]] for low-temperature measurements, and for use with a [[superconducting]] [[electromagnet]]. In addition to being hard, [[diamonds]] have the advantage of being transparent to a wide range of the [[electromagnetic spectrum]] from [[infrared]] to [[gamma rays]], with the exception of the far [[ultraviolet]] and soft [[X-rays]]. This makes the DAC a perfect device for [[spectroscopic]] experiments and for [[crystallography|crystallographic studies]] using hard [[X-rays]].


A variant of the diamond anvil, the hydrothermal diamond anvil cell (HDAC) is used in experimental petrology/geochemistry for the study of aqueous fluids, silicate melts, immiscible liquids, mineral solubility and aqueous fluid speciation at geologic pressures and temperatures. The HDAC is sometimes used to examine aqueous complexes in solution using the synchrotron light source techniques [[XANES]] and [[EXAFS]]. The design of HDAC is very similar to that of DAC, but it is optimized for studying liquids.<ref>{{cite journal|author=Bassett, W.A. ''et al.''|title=A new diamond anvil cell for hydrothermal studies to 2.5 GPa and from −190 to 1200 °C|doi=10.1063/1.1143931|year=1993|journal=Review of Scientific Instruments|volume=64|issue=8|pages=2340|bibcode = 1993RScI...64.2340B }}</ref>
===½mv² versus mc²===
De Pretto used the expression <math>mv^2</math> for the "[[vis viva]]" and the energy store within matter, where he identified v with the [[speed of light]]. His formula is apparently in agreement with [[Albert Einstein]]'s formula <math>E=mc^2</math> for [[mass-energy equivalence]], which was derived by Einstein as a consequence of [[special relativity]].


==Innovative uses==
However, Umberto Bartocci (professor of mathematics and a critic of [[relativity theory]]) speculated about a possible influence of De Pretto on Einstein. On the other hand, Ignazio Marchioro argued that there is no connection, since the theory of De Pretto was based on the aether (a superseded theory not present in special relativity), and also that De Pretto's formula is only a variation of the kinetic energy formula. While Bartocci agrees that De Pretto's theory is not connected with relativity, he is still of the opinion that his thoughts on the energy reservoir within matter could have influenced Einstein.


An innovative use of the diamond anvil cell is testing the sustainability and durability of life under [[high pressure]]s. This innovative use can be used in the search for life on [[extrasolar planets]]. One reason the DAC is applicable for testing life on extrasolar planets is [[panspermia]], a form of [[interstellar travel]]. When panspermia occurs, there is high pressure upon impact and the DAC can replicate this pressure. Another reason the DAC is applicable for testing life on extrasolar planets is that planetary bodies that hold the potential for life may have incredibly high pressure on their surface.
{{See|Mass–energy equivalence#History}}
Anurag Sharma, a [[geochemistry|geochemist]], James Scott, a [[microbiology|microbiologist]], and others at the [[Carnegie Institution of Washington]] performed an experiment with the DAC using this new innovative application. Their goal was to test microbes and discover under what level of pressure they can carry out life processes. The experiment was performed under 1.6 [[GPa]] of pressure, which is more than 16,000 times [[Earth]]’s surface pressure (Earth’s surface pressure is 985 hPa). The experiment began by placing a solution of bacteria, specifically [[Escherichia coli]] and [[Shewanella oneidensis]], in a film and placing it in the DAC. The pressure was then raised to 1.6 GPa. When raised to this pressure and kept there for 30 hours, only about 1% of the bacteria survived. The experimenters then added a dye to the solution. If the cells survived the squeezing and were capable of carrying out life processes, specifically breaking down [[formate]], the dye would turn clear. 1.6 GPa is such great pressure that during the experiment the DAC turned the solution into [[Ice#Phases|ice-IV]], a room-temperature ice. When the bacteria broke down the formate in the ice, liquid pockets would form because of the chemical reaction. The bacteria were also able to cling to the surface of the DAC with their tails.<ref name="couz">{{cite journal|author = Couzin, J. |title = Weight of the world on microbes' shoulders|journal = Science|pages = 1444–1445|year = 2002|doi=10.1126/science.295.5559.1444b|volume = 295|issue = 5559|pmid = 11859165 }}</ref>
However, there is some skepticism with this experiment. People debate whether carrying out the simple process of breaking down formate is enough to consider the bacteria living. Art Yayanos, an oceanographer at the [[Scripps Institute of Oceanography]] in La Jolla, California, believes an organism should only be considered living if it can reproduce. Another issue with the DAC experiment is that when high pressures occur, there are usually high temperatures present as well, but in this experiment there were not. This experiment was performed at room-temperature, which causes some skepticism of the results.<ref name ="couz"/>


Moving past the 10 years of skepticism, new results from independent research groups <ref name="vanlint">{{cite journal|author = Vanlinit, D. et al. |title = Rapid Acquisition of Gigapascal-High-Pressure Resistance by Escherichia coli|journal = mBio|pages = e00130-10|year = 2011|doi= 10.1128/mBio.00130-10|volume = 2|issue = 1}}</ref> have shown the validity of Sharma et al. (2002) <ref name="sharma">{{cite journal|author = Sharma, A., et al. |title = Microbial activity at Gigapascal pressures|journal = Science|pages = 1514–1516|year = 2002|doi=10.1126/science.1068018|volume = 295|issue = 5559|pmid = 11859192|bibcode = 2002Sci...295.1514S }}</ref> work.  This is a significant step that reiterates the need for a new approach to the old problem of studying environmental extremes through experiments.  There is practically no debate whether microbial life can survive pressures up to 600 MPa, which has been shown over the last decade or so to be valid through a number of scattered publications.<ref name="sharma">{{cite journal|author = Sharma, A., et al. |title = Microbial activity at Gigapascal pressures|journal = Science|pages = 1514–1516|year = 2002|doi=10.1126/science.1068018|volume = 295|issue = 5559|bibcode = 2002Sci...295.1514S|pmid=11859192}}</ref> What is significant in this approach of Sharma et al. 2002 work is the elegantly straightforward ability to monitor systems at extreme conditions that have since remained technically inaccessible. While the simplicity and the elegance of this experimental approach is mind-boggling; the results are rather expected and consistent with most biophysical models.  This novel approach lays a foundation for future work on microbiology at non-ambient conditions by not only providing a scientific premise, but also laying the technical feasibility for future work on non-ambient biology and organic systems.
===Radioactive decay===
De Pretto's paper discussed the [[radioactive decay]] of [[uranium]] and [[thorium]] and was the first to conclude that this decay was energy transformation from mass into energy. He also presented a hypothesis that the intense heat assumed to be in the center of the [[Earth]] (theory of central fire) was caused by the tremendous mass of the earth creating a massive radioactive core giving off heat and energy.


There is another group of scientists performing similar tests with a low-pressure diamond anvil cell. This low-pressure DAC has better imaging quality and signal collection. It is designed to sense pressures in the 0.1–600 MPa range, much lower than the high pressure DAC. The new low-pressure DAC also has a new asymmetric design, as opposed to a symmetric design the old, high pressure DAC used. In this experiment [[Saccharomyces cerevisiae]] is the microbe being observed. Saccharomyces cerevisiae is more commonly known as baker’s yeast. These microbes can only grow in pressures ranging from 15–50 MPa, while pressures over 200 MPa are likely to kill the cells. The microbes were also incubated at 30 °C. Their tests showed that the yeast completed its cell cycle in 97±5 minutes.<ref>{{cite journal|title = Development of a low-pressure diamond anvil cell and analytical tools to monitor microbial activities in situ under controlled p and t|journal = Biochimica et Biophysica Acta (BBA)|volume = 1764|pages = 434–442–230|year = 2006|doi = 10.1016/j.bbapap.2005.11.009|issue = 3|last1 = Oger|first1 = Phil M.|last2 = Daniel|first2 = Isabelle|last3 = Picard|first3 = Aude |pmid=16388999|url=http://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/docs/00/09/35/86/PDF/Oger_BBA_pro_Formate.pdf}}</ref>
==Honors==
In 1906 De Pretto was accepted as a member of [[Accademia dei Lincei]], a scientific organization whose members included [[Galileo Galilei]]. The director of the organization, [[Ernesto Mancini]], was also a member of [[The Royal Society of London]], an international scientific society. Mancini submitted De Pretto's paper to the Royal Society for international recognition. It was received favorably and was listed in the Society's ''[[International Catalogue of Scientific Literature]]''.<ref>{{Cite journal|author=Royal Society of London|title=International Catalogue of Scientific Literature|journal=International Catalogue of Scientific Literature|year=1906|issue=V|pages=83,160}} (printed November, 1906)</ref>
In June 2013, Chrystèle Sanloup et al. reported using a diamond anvil cell to create reactions between [[xenon]] and water [[ice]] to create a compound of xenon, oxygen and hydrogen at pressures above 50 [[Pascal (unit)|GPa]] and a temperature of 1500 [[Kelvin (unit)|K]], that are conditions found in the interiors of the [[Solar System]]'s [[gas giant]] planets, [[Uranus]] and [[Neptune]]. X-ray [[crystallography]] data was used to determine a hexagonal lattice with four xenon atoms per unit cell. The results are consistent with the compound being Xe<sub>4</sub>O<sub>12</sub>H<sub>12</sub>, and lead to the conjecture that xenon is expected to be depleted in the atmospheres of the giant planets as a result of sequestration at depth.
<ref>{{cite journal|doi=|title=Reactivity of Xenon with Ice at Planetary Conditions|journal=Phys. Rev. Lett. |volume=110|page= 265501 |year=2013|doi=10.1103/PhysRevLett.110.265501|url=http://www.researchgate.net/publication/249317513_Reactivity_of_Xenon_with_Ice_at_Planetary_Conditions|author=Sanloup, Chrystèle; Bonev, Stanimir A; Hochlaf, Majdi and Maynard-Casely, Helen E }}</ref><ref>Maynard-Casely, Helen (18 June 2013) [http://theconversation.com/impossible-chemistry-making-the-unreactive-react-15272 Impossible chemistry: making the unreactive, react], [[The Conversation (website)|The Conversation]], accessed 10 July 2013</ref>
 
==See also==
{{colbegin|3}}
*[[Anvil press]]
*[[High pressure]]
*[[Pressure experiment]]
*[[Fluid statics]]
*[[Material properties of diamond]]
{{colend}}


==References==
==References==
{{reflist|35em}}
{{reflist}}


==External links==
==External links==
{{Commons category|Diamond anvil cell}}
*[http://www.cartesio-episteme.net/fis/depret-bombay.htm Interview with Dr Dhananjay Khadilkar on the life of Olinto de Pretto in 2005, biographical information extracted from Chicagoland's ''Italian American Voice'', Sep. 2001]
*[http://www.crystal.vt.edu/crystal/dac.html The Diamond-Anvil Cell] – Crystallography Laboratory at Virginia Tech.
*[http://www.swif.uniba.it/lei/rassegna/020804a.htm Italian article supporting an opinion different from Barocci's]
*{{cite web|url = http://www.llnl.gov/str/December04/Weir.html|title = Putting the Squeeze on Materials|accessdate=2009-05-05}}
 
{{Persondata <!-- Metadata: see [[Wikipedia:Persondata]]. -->
| NAME              = De Pretto, Olinto
| ALTERNATIVE NAMES =
| SHORT DESCRIPTION =
| DATE OF BIRTH    = April 26, 1857
| PLACE OF BIRTH    = Schio, province of Vicenza Italy
| DATE OF DEATH    = 1921
| PLACE OF DEATH    =
}}
 
 
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[[Category:1857 births]]
[[Category:1921 deaths]]
[[Category:19th-century Italian people]]
[[Category:Italian physicists]]
[[Category:Italian geologists]]


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[[Category:Materials science]]
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Revision as of 20:38, 12 August 2014

Template:Infobox person Olinto De Pretto (1857–1921) was an Italian industrialist and geologist from Schio, Vicenza. There are claims – most prominent by the Italian mathematician Umberto Bartocci – that De Pretto may have been the first person to derive the Energy-Mass-Equivalence , generally attributed to Albert Einstein. He suggested that radioactive decay of uranium and thorium was an example of mass transforming into energy.

Early life

Olinto De Pretto was born on April 26, 1857 in Schio in the province of Vicenza in northern Italy. Olinto was the sixth of seven children (three boys, four girls). His mother was Angelica Boschetti (1822–1905). His father, Pietro De Pretto (1810–1891), was an architect whose hobbies included astronomy and geology, two studies Olinto would later take up.

He attended the Superior School of Agriculture in Milano where he studied agriculture and geology with a major in Agronomics. He graduated in 1879 with a degree in Agronomics. Immediately upon graduation he became a university assistant to Professor Gaetano Cantoni, a Dean of the agricultural school. Together they developed methods that helped modernize Italian agriculture by improving methods of crop rotation and analyzing soil chemistry.[1]

When Cantoni died in 1887, Olinto left the university and became a director at a mechanical foundry mill owned by his older brother Silvio, where he worked for the rest of his life.[2]

Early scientific research and papers

In 1888, as a result of his research with his brother Augusto, he published his first paper, "The Influence of the Raising and the Degradation of Mountains on the Development of Glaciers". In 1892, along with his brothers Augusto and Silvio they founded the Alpinistic Circle with Silvio as the first president. In 1896 the Bulletin of the Italian Society of Geology republished his article as "The Degradation of Mountains and Its Influence on Glaciers".[3]

In 1898, his paper titled "Glacial Epoch and Orografical Theory" was published in the Bulletin of the Italian Alpine Club.

In 1899, he published "Geological Signs in the Surroundings of Schio".

Contributions to physics and energy-mass-equivalence

From 1899 to 1903 De Pretto began to study the emerging field of nuclear physics and its relationship to astronomy. He focused on the theory of aether, a hypothetical substance at that time believed to fill all space.

As a result of his research on November 29, 1903 De Pretto published a 62-page paper in the Atti del Reale Istituto Veneto di Scienze, Lettere ed Arti, vol LXIII (Proceedings of the Royal Veneto Institute of Science, Letters and Arts) entitled "Ipotesi dell'Etere nella Vita dell'Universo" ("Hypothesis of Aether in the Life of the Universe"). The paper was endorsed by the famous astronomer Giovanni Schiaparelli. De Pretto's paper was later included in the proceedings of an Italian scientific institute The Royal Veneto Institute of Science.[1]

This theory was similar to Samuel Tolver Preston's 1875 hypothesis that matter and energy might be interchangeable. De Pretto's theory was based on his hypothesis that a mass traveling at velocity v has the potential energy[2] (forza viva) proportional to mv2 (the exact formula is ½mv2). In the section of his paper headed Energy of the Ether and Potential Energy in Matter, De Pretto wrote:

Matter uses and stores energy as inertia, just like a steam engine that uses the energy in steam and stores energy in inertia as potential energy[... ] All components of a body are animated by infinitesimal but rapid movements equal to perhaps the vibration of the ether. It must be concluded that the matter in any body contains the sum of the energy represented by the entire mass of that body if it could move through space with the speed of a single particle.[3]

By theorizing "vibration of the ether", De Pretto asserted that mass is vibrating energy and that mass and energy are therefore interchangeable. He then speculated that ordinary matter may be considered to be vibrating at the speed of light c.

According to De Pretto,

The matter of any body contains within it a sum of energy represented by the entire mass of the body[... ] Nobody will easily admit that, stored in a latent state, in any kilogram of matter, completely hidden to all our investigations, hides such a sum of energy, equivalent to the amount that can be extracted from [burning] millions and millions of kilograms of coal."

½mv² versus mc²

De Pretto used the expression for the "vis viva" and the energy store within matter, where he identified v with the speed of light. His formula is apparently in agreement with Albert Einstein's formula for mass-energy equivalence, which was derived by Einstein as a consequence of special relativity.

However, Umberto Bartocci (professor of mathematics and a critic of relativity theory) speculated about a possible influence of De Pretto on Einstein. On the other hand, Ignazio Marchioro argued that there is no connection, since the theory of De Pretto was based on the aether (a superseded theory not present in special relativity), and also that De Pretto's formula is only a variation of the kinetic energy formula. While Bartocci agrees that De Pretto's theory is not connected with relativity, he is still of the opinion that his thoughts on the energy reservoir within matter could have influenced Einstein.

Template:See

Radioactive decay

De Pretto's paper discussed the radioactive decay of uranium and thorium and was the first to conclude that this decay was energy transformation from mass into energy. He also presented a hypothesis that the intense heat assumed to be in the center of the Earth (theory of central fire) was caused by the tremendous mass of the earth creating a massive radioactive core giving off heat and energy.

Honors

In 1906 De Pretto was accepted as a member of Accademia dei Lincei, a scientific organization whose members included Galileo Galilei. The director of the organization, Ernesto Mancini, was also a member of The Royal Society of London, an international scientific society. Mancini submitted De Pretto's paper to the Royal Society for international recognition. It was received favorably and was listed in the Society's International Catalogue of Scientific Literature.[4]

References

43 year old Petroleum Engineer Harry from Deep River, usually spends time with hobbies and interests like renting movies, property developers in singapore new condominium and vehicle racing. Constantly enjoys going to destinations like Camino Real de Tierra Adentro.

External links

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de:Olinto De Pretto es:Olinto De Pretto fr:Olinto de Pretto it:Olinto De Pretto pt:Olinto De Pretto

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    The data offered is for normal info purposes only and isn't supposed to be personalised investment or monetary advice. Motley Fool Singapore contributor Stanley Lim would not personal shares in any corporations talked about. Singapore private home costs increased by 1.eight% within the fourth quarter of 2012, up from 0.6% within the earlier quarter. Resale prices of government-built HDB residences which are usually bought by Singaporeans, elevated by 2.5%, quarter on quarter, the quickest acquire in five quarters. And industrial property, prices are actually double the levels of three years ago. No withholding tax in the event you sell your property. All your local information regarding vital HDB policies, condominium launches, land growth, commercial property and more

    There are various methods to go about discovering the precise property. Some local newspapers (together with the Straits Instances ) have categorised property sections and many local property brokers have websites. Now there are some specifics to consider when buying a 'new launch' rental. Intended use of the unit Every sale begins with 10 p.c low cost for finish of season sale; changes to 20 % discount storewide; follows by additional reduction of fiftyand ends with last discount of 70 % or extra. Typically there is even a warehouse sale or transferring out sale with huge mark-down of costs for stock clearance. Deborah Regulation from Expat Realtor shares her property market update, plus prime rental residences and houses at the moment available to lease Esparina EC @ Sengkang (accepted November 23, 1903 and printed February 27, 1904)
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  4. ↑ One of the biggest reasons investing in a Singapore new launch is an effective things is as a result of it is doable to be lent massive quantities of money at very low interest rates that you should utilize to purchase it. Then, if property values continue to go up, then you'll get a really high return on funding (ROI). Simply make sure you purchase one of the higher properties, reminiscent of the ones at Fernvale the Riverbank or any Singapore landed property Get Earnings by means of Renting

    In its statement, the singapore property listing - website link, government claimed that the majority citizens buying their first residence won't be hurt by the new measures. Some concessions can even be prolonged to chose teams of consumers, similar to married couples with a minimum of one Singaporean partner who are purchasing their second property so long as they intend to promote their first residential property. Lower the LTV limit on housing loans granted by monetary establishments regulated by MAS from 70% to 60% for property purchasers who are individuals with a number of outstanding housing loans on the time of the brand new housing purchase. Singapore Property Measures - 30 August 2010 The most popular seek for the number of bedrooms in Singapore is 4, followed by 2 and three. Lush Acres EC @ Sengkang

    Discover out more about real estate funding in the area, together with info on international funding incentives and property possession. Many Singaporeans have been investing in property across the causeway in recent years, attracted by comparatively low prices. However, those who need to exit their investments quickly are likely to face significant challenges when trying to sell their property – and could finally be stuck with a property they can't sell. Career improvement programmes, in-house valuation, auctions and administrative help, venture advertising and marketing, skilled talks and traisning are continuously planned for the sales associates to help them obtain better outcomes for his or her shoppers while at Knight Frank Singapore. No change Present Rules

    Extending the tax exemption would help. The exemption, which may be as a lot as $2 million per family, covers individuals who negotiate a principal reduction on their existing mortgage, sell their house short (i.e., for lower than the excellent loans), or take part in a foreclosure course of. An extension of theexemption would seem like a common-sense means to assist stabilize the housing market, but the political turmoil around the fiscal-cliff negotiations means widespread sense could not win out. Home Minority Chief Nancy Pelosi (D-Calif.) believes that the mortgage relief provision will be on the table during the grand-cut price talks, in response to communications director Nadeam Elshami. Buying or promoting of blue mild bulbs is unlawful.

    A vendor's stamp duty has been launched on industrial property for the primary time, at rates ranging from 5 per cent to 15 per cent. The Authorities might be trying to reassure the market that they aren't in opposition to foreigners and PRs investing in Singapore's property market. They imposed these measures because of extenuating components available in the market." The sale of new dual-key EC models will even be restricted to multi-generational households only. The models have two separate entrances, permitting grandparents, for example, to dwell separately. The vendor's stamp obligation takes effect right this moment and applies to industrial property and plots which might be offered inside three years of the date of buy. JLL named Best Performing Property Brand for second year running

    The data offered is for normal info purposes only and isn't supposed to be personalised investment or monetary advice. Motley Fool Singapore contributor Stanley Lim would not personal shares in any corporations talked about. Singapore private home costs increased by 1.eight% within the fourth quarter of 2012, up from 0.6% within the earlier quarter. Resale prices of government-built HDB residences which are usually bought by Singaporeans, elevated by 2.5%, quarter on quarter, the quickest acquire in five quarters. And industrial property, prices are actually double the levels of three years ago. No withholding tax in the event you sell your property. All your local information regarding vital HDB policies, condominium launches, land growth, commercial property and more

    There are various methods to go about discovering the precise property. Some local newspapers (together with the Straits Instances ) have categorised property sections and many local property brokers have websites. Now there are some specifics to consider when buying a 'new launch' rental. Intended use of the unit Every sale begins with 10 p.c low cost for finish of season sale; changes to 20 % discount storewide; follows by additional reduction of fiftyand ends with last discount of 70 % or extra. Typically there is even a warehouse sale or transferring out sale with huge mark-down of costs for stock clearance. Deborah Regulation from Expat Realtor shares her property market update, plus prime rental residences and houses at the moment available to lease Esparina EC @ Sengkang (printed November, 1906)
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