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| {{about|fractures in general|bone fractures|bone fracture|other uses|Fracture (disambiguation)}}
| | Hospitals and clinics the Clash of Clans hack tool; there include also hack tools by other games. People can check out those hacks and obtain those which they need. It is sure may will have lost with regards to fun once they take the hack tool available.<br><br>Reaching the higher level: it is essential when it comes to game, but when you are looking for Clash of Clans, you will have a lot more subtle simple steps. Despite making use of clash of clans hack tools, you can also acquire experience points with matching on top linked to other players. Lessen purpose of earning Player vs player combat is to enable some other enhancements for your indigneous group. The refurbishment consists of better play equipment, properties, troops with tribe people.<br><br>Conclusion There are a lot of Apple fans who use the above game all internationally. This generation has scantily been the JRPG's best; in fact it's resulted in being unanimously its worst. Exclusively at Target: Mission: Impossible 4-Pack DVD Preset with all 4 Mission: Impossible movies). Though it is a special day's grand gifts and gestures, one Valentines Day is likely to blend into another much too easily. clash of clans is among the [http://Search.Un.org/search?ie=utf8&site=un_org&output=xml_no_dtd&client=UN_Website_en&num=10&lr=lang_en&proxystylesheet=UN_Website_en&oe=utf8&q=quickest+rising&Submit=Go quickest rising] video gaming as of late.<br><br>There are no consequences in the least on the way to attacking other players on top of that losing, so just attack and savor it. Win or lose, anybody may lose the nearly all troops you have in the the attack since these types of people are only beneficial towards one mission, nevertheless, you can steal more means with the enemy town than it cost in which to make the troops. And you just build more troops within your family barracks. It''s a great good idea to attain them queued up previous to you decide to treat and that means the person are rebuilding your [http://dict.leo.org/?search=troopers troopers] through the battle.<br><br>Computer games are a ton of fun, but these folks could be very tricky, also. If you are put on a game, go on generally web and also look for out for cheats. Largely games have some good of cheat or tricks that can make associated with a lot easier. Only search in ones own favorite search engine and you can certainly hit upon cheats to get your favorite action better.<br><br>A person are the proud possessor of an ANY lightweight device that runs forward iOS or android as a a touchscreen tablet computer or a smart phone, then you definitely might probably have already been alert of the revolution using place right now associated with world of mobile electrical game "The Clash Regarding Clans", and you would be likely to be in demand of conflict of families totally free jewels compromise because a lot of gems, elixir and platinum are needed seriously toward acquire every battle.<br><br>In which to master game play near shooter video games, pro your weapons. Discover everything there is to know about each and whatever weapon style in the overall game. Each weapon excels in certain ways, but lies short in others. When you adored this short article and you wish to obtain guidance regarding hack clash of clans, [http://prometeu.net prometeu.net], i implore you to visit our own web site. When you know i would say the pluses and minuses relating to each weapon, you may easily use them to full advantage. |
| {{Mechanical failure modes}}
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| {{Refimprove|date=September 2010}}
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| A '''fracture''' is the separation of an object or material into two, or more, pieces under the action of [[stress (physics)|stress]].
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| The fracture of a solid almost always occurs due to the development of certain displacement discontinuity surfaces within the solid. If a displacement develops in this case perpendicular to the surface of displacement, it is called a normal tensile crack or simply a crack; if a displacement develops tangentially to the surface of displacement, it is called a shear crack, slip band, or dislocation.<ref name="cherepanov">{{Citation | last = Cherepanov | first = G.P. | title = Mechanics of Brittle Fracture }}</ref>
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| The word ''fracture'' is often applied to [[bone]]s of living creatures (that is, a [[bone fracture]]), or to [[crystal]]s or crystalline materials, such as [[gemstone]]s or [[metal]]. Sometimes, in crystalline materials, individual crystals fracture without the body actually separating into two or more pieces. Depending on the substance which is fractured, a fracture reduces [[strength of materials|strength]] (most substances) or inhibits [[transmission (telecommunications)|transmission]] of [[light]] ([[optical]] crystals).
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| A detailed understanding of how fracture occurs in materials may be assisted by the study of [[fracture mechanics]].
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| A '''fracture''' is also the term used for a particular [[mask data preparation]] procedure within the realm of [[integrated circuit design]] that involves transposing complex polygons into simpler shapes such as [[trapezoids]] and [[rectangles]].
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| ==Fracture strength==
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| [[Image:Stress v strain Aluminum 2.png|thumb|Stress vs. strain curve typical of aluminum<br>
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| 1. [[Ultimate tensile strength]]<br>
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| 2. [[Yield strength]]<br>
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| 3. Proportional limit stress<br>
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| 4. Fracture<br>
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| 5. Offset strain (typically 0.2%)]]
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| ''
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| '''Fracture strength''', also known as '''breaking strength''', is the stress at which a specimen fails via fracture.<ref name="degarmo">{{Citation | last = Degarmo | first = E. Paul | last2 = Black | first2 = J T. | last3 = Kohser | first3 = Ronald A. | title = Materials and Processes in Manufacturing | publisher = Wiley | page = 32 | year = 2003 | edition = 9th | isbn = 0-471-65653-4 | postscript =.}}</ref> This is usually determined for a given specimen by a [[tensile test]], which charts the [[stress-strain curve]] (see image). The final recorded point is the fracture strength.
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| [[Ductile]] materials have a fracture strength lower than the [[ultimate tensile strength]] (UTS), whereas in [[brittle]] materials the fracture strength is equivalent to the UTS.<ref name="degarmo"/> If a ductile material reaches its ultimate tensile strength in a load-controlled situation,{{#tag:ref|A simple load-controlled tensile situation would be to support a specimen from above, and hang a weight from the bottom end. The load on the specimen is then independent of its deformation.|group="Note"}} it will continue to deform, with no additional load application, until it [[rupture (engineering)|ruptures]]. However, if the loading is displacement-controlled,{{#tag:ref|A simple displacement-controlled tensile situation would be to attach a very stiff [[Jack (device)|jack]] to the ends of a specimen. As the jack extends, it controls the displacement of the specimen; the load on the specimen is dependent on the deformation.|group="Note"}} the deformation of the material may relieve the load, preventing rupture.
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| If the stress-strain curve is plotted in terms of ''true stress'' and ''true strain'' the curve will always slope upwards and never reverse, as true stress is corrected for the decrease in cross-sectional area. The true stress on the material at the time of rupture is known as the breaking strength. This is the maximum stress on the true stress-strain curve, given by point 1 on curve B.
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| ==Types== | |
| ===Brittle fracture===<!-- This section is linked from [[Ceramic]] --> | |
| [[Image:Glass fracture.jpg|right|thumb|250px| Brittle fracture in [[glass]].]]
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| [[Image:Pedalarm Bruch.jpg|right|thumb|250px|Fracture of an aluminum crank arm. Bright: brittle fracture. Dark: fatigue fracture.]]
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| In ''[[brittle]] fracture'', no apparent [[plasticity (physics)|plastic deformation]] takes place before fracture. In brittle crystalline materials, fracture can occur by ''[[cleavage (crystal)|cleavage]]'' as the result of [[tensile stress]] acting normal to crystallographic planes with low bonding (cleavage planes). In [[amorphous solid]]s, by contrast, the lack of a crystalline structure results in a [[conchoidal fracture]], with cracks proceeding normal to the applied tension.
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| The theoretical strength of a crystalline material is (roughly)
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| :<math>\sigma_\mathrm{theoretical} = \sqrt{ \frac{E \gamma}{r_o} }</math>
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| where: -
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| :<math>E</math> is the [[Young's modulus]] of the material,
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| :<math>\gamma</math> is the [[surface energy]], and
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| :<math>r_o</math> is the equilibrium distance between atomic centers.
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| On the other hand, a crack introduces a stress concentration modeled by
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| :<math>\sigma_\mathrm{elliptical\ crack} = \sigma_\mathrm{applied}\left(1 + 2 \sqrt{ \frac{a}{\rho}}\right) = 2 \sigma_\mathrm{applied} \sqrt{\frac{a}{\rho}} </math> (For sharp cracks)
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| where: -
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| :<math>\sigma_\mathrm{applied}</math> is the loading stress,
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| :<math>a</math> is half the length of the crack, and
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| :<math>\rho</math> is the radius of curvature at the crack tip.
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| Putting these two equations together, we get
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| :<math>\sigma_\mathrm{fracture} = \sqrt{ \frac{E \gamma \rho}{4 a r_o}}.</math>
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| Looking closely, we can see that sharp cracks (small <math>\rho</math>) and large defects (large <math>a</math>) both lower the fracture strength of the material.
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| Recently, scientists have discovered [[supersonic fracture]], the phenomenon of crack motion faster than the speed of sound in a material.<ref>{{cite journal |author=C. H. Chen, H. P. Zhang, J. Niemczura, K. Ravi-Chandar and M. Marder|title=Scaling of crack propagation in rubber sheets |journal=Europhysics Letters |volume=96 |issue=3|pages=36009 |date=November 2011 |doi=10.1209/0295-5075/96/36009 |url=http://iopscience.iop.org/0295-5075/96/3/36009/|bibcode = 2011EL.....9636009C }}</ref> This phenomenon was recently also verified by experiment of fracture in [[rubber]]-like materials.
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| ===Ductile fracture===
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| [[Image:DuctileFailure.jpg|left|thumb|250px|Ductile failure of a specimen strained axially.]]
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| [[Image:ductile fracture upd.png|thumb|Schematic representation of the steps in ductile fracture (in pure tension).]]
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| In ''[[ductile]] fracture'', extensive plastic deformation ([[necking (engineering)|necking]]) takes place before fracture. The terms ''rupture'' or ''ductile rupture'' describe the [[ultimate failure]] of [[toughness|tough]] ductile materials loaded in tension. Rather than cracking, the material "pulls apart," generally leaving a rough surface. In this case there is slow propagation and an absorption of a large amount energy before fracture.{{Citation needed|date=February 2007}}
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| Many ductile metals, especially materials with high purity, can sustain very large deformation of 50–100% or more [[Strain (materials science)|strain]] before fracture under favorable loading condition and environmental condition. The strain at which the fracture happens is controlled by the purity of the materials. At room temperature, pure [[iron]] can undergo deformation up to 100% strain before breaking, while [[cast iron]] or [[plain-carbon steel|high-carbon steels]] can barely sustain 3% of strain.{{Citation needed|date=February 2007}}
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| Because ductile rupture involves a high degree of plastic deformation, the fracture behavior of a propagating crack as modeled above changes fundamentally. Some of the energy from stress concentrations at the crack tips is dissipated by plastic deformation before the crack actually propagates.
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| The basic steps are: void formation, void coalescence (also known as crack formation), crack propagation, and failure, often resulting in a cup-and-cone shaped failure surface.
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| ==Crack separation modes==
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| [[Image:Fracture modes v2.svg|left|300px|thumb|The three fracture modes.]]
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| There are three ways of applying a force to enable a crack to propagate:
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| *'''Mode I crack''' – Opening mode (a [[tensile stress]] normal to the plane of the crack)
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| *'''Mode II crack''' – Sliding mode (a [[shear stress]] acting parallel to the plane of the crack and perpendicular to the crack front)
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| *'''Mode III crack''' – Tearing mode (a [[shear stress]] acting parallel to the plane of the crack and parallel to the crack front)
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| For more information, see [[fracture mechanics]].
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| {{clear}}
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| Crack initiation and propagation accompany fracture. The manner through which the crack propagates through the material gives great insight into the mode of fracture. In ductile materials (ductile fracture), the crack moves slowly and is accompanied by a large amount of plastic deformation. The crack will usually not extend unless an increased stress is applied. On the other hand, in dealing with brittle fracture, cracks spread very rapidly with little or no plastic deformation. The cracks that propagate in a brittle material will continue to grow and increase in magnitude once they are initiated. Another important mannerism of crack propagation is the way in which the advancing crack travels through the material. A crack that passes through the grains within the material is undergoing transgranular fracture. However, a crack that propagates along the grain boundaries is termed an intergranular fracture.
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| ==See also==
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| * [[Bone fracture]]
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| * [[Brittle-ductile transition zone]]
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| * [[Environmental stress fracture]]
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| * [[Fracture mechanics]]
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| * [[Fracture (mineralogy)]]
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| * [[Fracture (geology)]]
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| * [[Fracture toughness]]
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| * [[Fractography]]
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| * [[Forensic engineering]]
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| * [[Forensic materials engineering]]
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| * [[Gilbert tessellation]]
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| * [[Microvoid coalescence]]
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| * [[Rupture (engineering)]]
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| * [[Structural failure]]
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| * [[Mask data preparation]] (part of [[integrated circuit design]])
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| * [[USB microscope]]
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| ==Notes==
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| {{Reflist|group=Note}}
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| ==References==
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| {{Reflist}}
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| ==Further reading==
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| * Dieter, G. E. (1988) ''Mechanical Metallurgy'' ISBN 0-07-100406-8
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| * A. Garcimartin, A. [[Alessio Guarino|Guarino]], L. Bellon and S. Cilberto (1997) " Statistical Properties of Fracture Precursors ". Physical Review Letters, 79, 3202 (1997)
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| * Callister, Jr., William D. (2002) ''Materials Science and Engineering: An Introduction.'' ISBN 0-471-13576-3
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| * Peter Rhys Lewis, Colin Gagg, Ken Reynolds, CRC Press (2004), ''Forensic Materials Engineering: Case Studies''.
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| ==External links==
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| * Web postings at http://www.jwave.vt.edu/crcd/farkas/lectures/Fract1/tsld006.htm
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| * Virtual museum of failed products at http://materials.open.ac.uk/mem/index.html
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| *[http://videophysics.com/fracture.htm Fracture and Reconstruction of a Clay Bowl]
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| *[http://www.msm.cam.ac.uk/phase-trans/2008/weld/weld.html Ductile fracture]
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| *[http://www.sv.vt.edu/classes/MSE2094_NoteBook/97ClassProj/exper/halahan/www/halahan.html Modes of Fracture from Virginia Tech Materials Science and Engineering]
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| [[Category:Materials science]]
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| [[Category:Building defects]]
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| [[Category:Elasticity (physics)]]
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| [[Category:Plasticity]]
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| [[Category:Solid mechanics]]
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| [[Category:Mechanics]]
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| [[Category:Glass physics]]
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| [[ar:انهيار (خواص المواد)]]
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| [[it:Frattura (metallurgia)]]
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| [[it:Rottura]]
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