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| [[File:Caramel Color in cola.jpg|thumb|200px|Beverages like [[cola]]s account for 3/4 of the demand for caramel coloring.]]
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| '''Caramel color''' or '''caramel coloring''' is a water soluble [[food coloring]]. It is made by heat treatment of [[carbohydrate]]s, in general in the presence of [[acid]]s, [[alkali]]s, or [[salt (chemistry)|salt]]s, in a process called [[caramelization]]. It is more fully [[oxidized]] than [[Caramel#Caramel candy|caramel candy]], and has an odor of burnt sugar and a somewhat bitter taste. Its color ranges from pale yellow to amber to dark [[brown]].
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| {{tocleft}}
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| Caramel color is one of the oldest and most widely used food colorings, and is found in many commercially produced foods, including: [[Batter (cooking)|batter]]s, [[beer]], brown bread, buns, chocolate,<ref>{{cite web |title= Other Applications: Cocoa/Chocolate |work= Caramel Color Application Guide |publisher= Sethness |url= http://www.sethness.com/apps/ |accessdate= 25 Nov 2013}}</ref> cookies, cough drops, spirits and liquor such as [[brandy]], [[rum]], and [[whisky]], chocolate-flavored confectionery and coatings, [[custard]]s, decorations, fillings and toppings, [[potato chip]]s,<ref>{{cite web |title= Zapp’s Potato Chips Ingredient Lists |publisher= Zapps, Inc |url= http://www.zapps.com/Zapps-Potato-Chips-Ingredient-Lists |accessdate= 25 Nov 2013 }}</ref> dessert mixes, doughnuts, fish and shellfish spreads, frozen desserts, [[fruit preserve]]s, glucose tablets, gravy, [[ice cream]], [[pickled cucumber|pickle]]s,<ref>{{cite web |title= Sweet Pickle Chips |publisher= M.A. Gedney Co. |url= http://www.gedneyfoods.com/products/detail?id=7 |accessdate= 25 Nov 2013}}</ref> [[sauce]]s and dressings, soft drinks (especially [[cola]]s), sweets, [[vinegar]], and more. Caramel color is widely approved for use in food globally but application and use level restrictions vary by country.<ref>{{citation |url=http://www.ddwcolor.com/standards |publisher=DD Williamson |title=Food & Beverage Processing Regulatory Resources |accessdate=2012-01-19}}</ref>
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| ==Production==
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| Caramel is manufactured by heating carbohydrates, either alone or in the presence of acids, alkalies, and/or salts. Caramel is produced from commercially available nutritive sweeteners consisting of [[fructose]], [[dextrose]] (glucose), [[invert sugar]], [[sucrose]], [[Barley malt syrup|malt syrup]], [[molasses]], starch hydrolysates and fractions thereof. The acids that may be used are [[Sulfuric acid|sulfuric]], [[Sulfurous acid|sulfurous]], [[Phosphoric acid|phosphoric]], [[Acetic acid|acetic]], and [[Citric acid|citric]] acids; the alkalies are [[Ammonium hydroxide|ammonium]], [[Sodium hydroxide|sodium]], [[Potassium hydroxide|potassium]], and [[Calcium hydroxide|calcium]] hydroxides; and the salts are [[Ammonium carbonate|ammonium]], [[Sodium carbonate|sodium]], and [[potassium carbonate]], [[bicarbonate]], [[phosphate]] (including mono- and dibasic), [[sulfate]], and [[bisulfite]]. [[Antifoaming agent]]s, such as [[glycerol|polyglycerol]] esters of fatty acids, may be used as processing aids during manufacture.<ref name="FCC">{{citation |url=http://online.foodchemicalscodex.org/online/login |publisher=[[United States Pharmacopeia#Product quality.E2.80.93standards and verification|FCC]] |title=FCC 7 Monographs / Caramel / 165
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| |accessdate=2011-11-07}}</ref> Its color ranges from pale-yellow to amber to dark-brown.
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| Caramel color molecules carry either a positive or a negative charge depending upon the reactants used in their manufacture. Problems such as [[Precipitation (chemistry)|precipitation]], [[flocculation]], or [[sedimentation|migration]] can be eliminated with the use of a properly charged caramel color for the intended application.
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| == Classification ==
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| Internationally, the United Nations Joint Food and Agriculture Organization/World Health Organization Expert Committee on Food Additives ([[JECFA]]) recognizes four classes of caramel color, differing by the reactants used in their manufacture, each with its own [[International Numbering System|INS]] and [[E number]], listed in the table below.
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| {{table|
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| |type=class="wikitable"
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| |hdrs=Class !! INS No. !! E Number !! Description !! Restrictions on preparation !! Used in<ref>{{cite web |title= Select the Appropriate Class of Caramel |work= Select Your Class |publisher= DD Williamson |url= http://www.ddwcolor.com/select-your-class |accessdate= 9 Apr 2013 }}</ref>
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| |row1=I {{!!}} 150a {{!!}} E150a {{!!}} Plain caramel, caustic caramel, spirit caramel {{!!}} No ammonium or sulfite compounds can be used {{!!}} Whiskey and other high proof alcohols
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| |row2=II {{!!}} 150b {{!!}} E150b {{!!}} Caustic sulfite caramel {{!!}} In the presence of sulfite compounds but no ammonium compounds can be used {{!!}} Cognac, sherry and some vinegars
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| |row3=III {{!!}} 150c {{!!}} E150c {{!!}} Ammonia caramel, baker's caramel, confectioner's caramel, beer caramel {{!!}} In the presence of ammonium compounds but no sulfite compounds can be used {{!!}} Beer, sauces, and confectionery
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| |row4=IV {{!!}} 150d {{!!}} E150d {{!!}} Sulfite ammonia caramel, acid-proof caramel, soft-drink caramel {{!!}} In the presence of both sulfite and ammonium compounds {{!!}} Acidic environments such as soft drinks
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| }} <!-- table -->
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| ==Color== <!-- Tinctorial Power redirects here -->
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| [[File:Caramel-colored-wafer-sticks.jpg|thumb|Wafer sticks containing caramel color are common in Greece, Indonesia and other countries around the globe.]]
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| '''Color Intensity''' (Tinctorial Power) is defined as the absorbance of a 1 mg/mL (0.1%) solution (weight/volume) in water, measured using a 1 cm light path at a wavelength of 610 nanometers (or 560 nm for tinctorial power).<ref name="FCC">{{citation
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| |url=http://online.foodchemicalscodex.org/online/login |publisher=[[United States Pharmacopeia#Product quality.E2.80.93standards and verification|FCC]] |title=FCC 7 Monographs / Caramel / 165
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| |accessdate=2011-11-07}}</ref> In this case, ''A'' stands for absorbance and ''TS'' stands for [[Total dissolved solids#Measurement of TDS|total solids]].
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| :<math>\text{Color Intensity}=\frac{A*100}{TS}</math>
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| The '''color tone''' of the caramel color is also important. This is defined by the [[Linner Hue Index]], which is the measure of the color hue or red characteristics of the caramel color. It is a function of the absorbance of light of wavelengths 510 and 610 nm. In general, the higher the Tinctorial Power, K<sub>0.56</sub>, the lower the Hue Index and the lower the red tones.<ref>{{citation |url=http://sethness.com/caramel_color_facts/properties.php |title=Physical and Chemical Properties of Caramel Color |publisher=Sethness-Roquette Caramel Color |accessdate=2009-04-26}}</ref>
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| Various other indices are in use around the world and there are conversion factors between them.<ref>{{citation |url=http://www.ddwcolor.com/ebcs-and-caramel-colour |publisher=DD Williamson |title=EBC’s & Caramel Color |accessdate=9 Apr 2013}}</ref><ref>{{citation |journal=Journal of Food Technology |volume=3|issue=4|pages=311–323 |title=The measurement and character of caramel colour |last=Grover|first=D. W. |url=http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1365-2621.1968.tb01472.x/abstract |publisher=Institute of Food Science and Technology |doi=10.1111/j.1365-2621.1968.tb01472.x |year=1968 |accessdate=2009-04-26}}</ref>
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| ==Additional function==
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| Caramel color is a [[colloid]]. Though the primary function of caramel color is for coloration, it also serves additional functions. In soft drinks, it can function as an [[emulsifier]]<ref>{{Citation |inventor-last= Anwar |inventor-first= Mohammad H. |inventor2-last= Calderon |inventor2-first= Marvin |publication-date= 12 Dec 1963 |issue-date= 23 Nov 1971 |title= Emulsions of flavoring oils and process for making same |country-code= US |description= Caramel is used as an emulsifying agent in preparing an aqueous emulsion of a water insoluble flavoring oil. The emulsion is utilized in preparing flavored beverage syrups and flavored beverages |patent-number= 3622343}}</ref> to help inhibit the formation of certain types of "[[flocculation|floc]]" and its light protective quality can aid in preventing oxidation of the flavoring components in bottled beverages.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Kamuf |first1=W ''et al.'' |date=March–April 2003 |title=Overview of Caramel Colors |journal=Cereal Foods World |volume=48 |issue=2 |pages=64–69 |publisher=American Association of Cereal Chemists, Inc |format=pdf |accessdate=9 Aug 2012 |url=http://www.ddwcolor.com/Caramel-Overview.pdf}}</ref>
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| ==Toxicology==
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| Internationally, JECFA has set the [[Acceptable Daily Intake]] (ADI) of Class I caramel color as "not specified"; that of Class II as 0–160 mg/kg body weight; that of Class III as 0–200 mg/kg body weight; and that of Class IV as 0–200 mg/kg body weight.<ref>{{Citation |author= JECFA |title=CARAMEL COLOURS |year= 2011 |publisher= FAO |url= http://www.fao.org/ag/agn/jecfa-additives/specs/monograph11/additive-102-m11.pdf }}</ref>
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| The [[United States Food and Drug Administration]] (FDA) classifies and regulates caramel color in [http://www.accessdata.fda.gov/scripts/cdrh/cfdocs/cfcfr/CFRSearch.cfm?fr=73.85 Title 21 CFR § 73.85] as a [[generally recognized as safe]] (GRAS) [[color additive]] exempt from certification. Unless a food has a standard of identity, caramel color may be safely used in foods generally at levels consistent with "[[good manufacturing practice]]" (GMP).
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| In 2010, the [[International Programme on Chemical Safety]] (IPCS) concluded that commercially-produced caramel color has the same toxicological properties as caramel produced by cooking or heating [[sucrose]], except for those prepared using ammonium (Class III and IV). The IPCS has concluded that caramel color does not exhibit [[carcinogenicity]] or [[mutagenicity]], based on its studies.<ref>{{citation |url=http://www.inchem.org/documents/jecfa/jecmono/v20je11.htm |publisher=IPCS |title=CARAMEL COLOURS |date=2010-09-21 |accessdate=2012-01-19}}</ref> While the US FDA,<ref>{{cite news |last= Yukhananov |first= Anna |title= US regulators dispute finding of cancer-causing soda |newspaper= Reuters |location= Washington |publisher= Reuters.com |date= 5 Mar 2012 |url= http://www.reuters.com/article/2012/03/06/soda-fda-idUSL2E8E5DSB20120306 |accessdate= 29 Oct 2012 }}</ref> Canadian [[Health Products and Food Branch]]<ref>{{Citation |first= Barbara |last= Lee |title= Letter from Director of Bureau of Chemical Safety |date= 15 Nov 2011 |publisher= [[Health Canada]], [[Health Products and Food Branch]] |url= http://www.refreshments.ca/system/files/33/original/HC_4-MEI_Response.pdf }}</ref> and [[European Food Safety Authority]] (EFSA)<ref>{{citation |url=http://www.efsa.europa.eu/en/efsajournal/pub/2004.htm |publisher=[[European Food Safety Authority]] (EFSA) |title=Scientific Opinion on the re-evaluation of caramel colours (E 150 a,b,c,d) as food additives |accessdate=2012-01-16}}</ref> have found caramel color safe for use in food and beverages, California has listed a compound formed in the manufacture of Class III and IV caramel colors in the state's [[California Proposition 65 (1986)|Proposition 65]],<ref>{{citation |url=http://oehha.ca.gov/prop65.html |publisher=[[California Office of Environmental Health Hazard Assessment|OEHHA]] |title=Proposition 65 |accessdate=2012-01-16}}</ref> which requires the Governor to publish, at least annually, a list of chemicals "known to the state to cause cancer or reproductive toxicity."
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| In June 2012, the [[Center for Science in the Public Interest]] (CSPI) published results of its own study on ammoniated caramel coloring in [[Coca-Cola]] and the presence of [[4-Methylimidazole]] (4-MEI). In samples from nine countries, levels ranged from 4 to 267 μg of 4-MEI per 12 fluid ounces (355 ml), with the lowest levels in California; State of California regulators estimate that consuming 30 μg per day corresponds to a 1:100,000 risk of developing cancer, and require cancer warning labels for foods leading to that much consumption.<ref>{{citation |url=http://www.cspinet.org/new/201206261.html |publisher=CSPI |title=Tests Show Carcinogen Levels in Coca-Cola Vary Worldwide |date=2012-06-26 |accessdate=2012-09-27}}</ref> According to the [[United States Pharmacopeia|Food Chemicals Codex]], 4-MeI in caramel color is allowed up to 250 ppm on a color-adjusted basis, which means 250 ppm maximum for every 0.100 color absorbance of a 0.10% solution at 610 nm.<ref>{{Citation |title= Food Chemicals Codex |publisher=The United States Pharmacopeial Convention |year=2012 |edition=8, S1 |chapter=FCC Monographs: Caramel Color |pages= 202–208 |url= http://online.foodchemicalscodex.org/online/pdf/download?fcc=8&s=1&q=fcc8s1_MON_8_1_f100293.pdf&officialOn=undefined&target=oldwindow&time=FriDec711:26:40EST2012 |isbn= 978-1-936424-06-1 }}</ref>
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| Caramel color has excellent microbiological stability. Since it is manufactured under very high temperature, high acidity, high pressure, and high [[specific gravity]], it is essentially sterile, as it will not support [[Microorganism|microbial growth]] unless in a dilute solution.
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| When reacted with sulfites, caramel color may retain traces of sulfite after processing. However, in finished food products, labeling is usually required only for sulfite levels above 10 [[parts per million|ppm]].
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| ===Review in United States===
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| In January 2014, a consumer review of various beverages in the United States reported measurements of the amounts of 4-MEI found in them.<ref name="CR Jan2014">{{cite web |url= http://www.consumerreports.org/cro/news/2014/01/caramel-color-the-health-risk-that-may-be-in-your-soda/index.htm |title=Caramel Coloring in Soda - Artificial Food Coloring |work=consumerreports.org |publisher=[[Consumer Reports]] |date=23 January 2014 |accessdate=24 January 2014}}</ref> The study found that [[Pepsi ONE]] and [[Malta (soft drink)|Malta Goya]] contain the chemical in excess of 29 micrograms per can or bottle, with that being [[California Proposition 65 (1986)|California Proposition 65's]] daily allowed amount for foods without a warning label.<ref name="CR Jan2014"/> Various other media sources reported the story, noting that the FDA says that there is no reason to believe that caramel coloring is unsafe but that they are conducting additional safety studies on 4-MEI found in foods and beverages.<ref>{{cite web |url= http://www.cnn.com/2014/01/23/health/consumer-reports-soda-caramel-coloring/ |title=Consumer Reports: Too many sodas contain potential carcinogen |first=William, (video presented by Elizabeth Cohen) |last= Hudson |work=cnn.com |date=23 January 2014|accessdate=24 January 2014}}</ref><ref>(video) {{cite web |url= http://abcnews.go.com/Health/consumer-reports-food-coloring-scare-give-soda/story?id=21639619 |title= Consumer Reports Food Coloring Scare: No Need to Give Up Soda Just Yet |first= Susan Donaldson |last= James |work=abcnews.go.com |date=24 Jan 2014 |accessdate=27 Jan 2014}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |url= http://www.latimes.com/business/money/la-fi-mo-caramel-color-20140123,0,4630.story |title=Pepsi One contains higher levels of potential carcinogen, report says |first=David |last=Pierson |work=[[Los Angeles Times]] |date=23 January 2014 |publisher=[[Tribune Co]] |location=[[Los Angeles, CA|Los Angeles]] |issn=0458-3035 |accessdate=24 January 2014}}</ref>
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| Pepsi challenged the conclusions of this study because "the average amount of diet soda consumed by those who drink it is approximately 100 [milliliters] per day, or less than a third of a 12 [ounce] can".<ref name="CR Jan2014"/> Because of this, Pepsi argues, consumers of its beverage would not get 29 micrograms of 4-MEI when drinking them.
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| ==Food allergies==
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| Caramel coloring may be derived from a variety of source products that are themselves common [[allergens]], such as glucose (sometimes derived from wheat), starch hydrolysates (from wheat), malt syrup (in general derived from barley), or [[lactose]] (from [[milk]]). As such, persons with known sensitivities or allergies to food products are advised to avoid foods including generic caramel coloring or first determine the source for the caramel coloring before consuming the food. North American and European manufacturers mostly use glucose derived from corn or wheat to produce caramel color, which is highly processed and is generally considered [[gluten free]].<ref>{{cite book | last = Case | first = Shelley | title = Gluten-Free Diet: A Comprehensive Resource Guide | publisher = Case Nutrition Consulting, Inc | edition = Revised-Expanded | year = 2008 | isbn = 978-1-897010-54-9}}</ref>
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| ==References==
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| {{reflist}}
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| ;Notes
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| {{refbegin}}
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| * Joint FAO/WHO Expert Committee on Food Additives (JECFA) specification for Caramel Colours [http://www.fao.org/ag/agn/jecfa-additives/details.html?id=800]
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| * U.S. Food and Drug Administration definition of Caramel, [[Code of Federal Regulations]] [http://www.cfsan.fda.gov/~lrd/cfr73-85.html 21 CFR 73.85]
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| * European Commission [http://ec.europa.eu/food/fs/sfp/addit_flavor/flav13_en.pdf Directive 95/45/EC] (26 July 1995) on food color purity
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| *[[International Programme on Chemical Safety]] INCHEM Database [http://www.inchem.org/documents/jecfa/jecmono/v20je11.htm]
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| {{refend}}
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| [[Category:Food colorings]]
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