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| In [[theoretical computer science]] a '''bisimulation''' is a [[binary relation]] between [[state transition system]]s, associating systems which behave in the same way in the sense that one system simulates the other and vice-versa.
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| Intuitively two systems are '''bisimilar''' if they match each other's moves. In this sense, each of the systems cannot be distinguished from the other by an observer.
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| == Formal definition ==
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| Given a [[state transition system|labelled state transition system]] (<math>S</math>, Λ, →), a ''bisimulation'' [[Relation (mathematics)|relation]] is a [[binary relation]] <math>R</math> over <math>S</math> (i.e., <math>R</math> ⊆ <math>S</math> × <math>S</math>) such that both <math>R</math><sup>-1</sup> and <math>R</math> are [[simulation preorder|simulation]]s.
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| Equivalently <math>R</math> is a bisimulation if for every pair of elements <math>p, q</math> in <math>S</math> with <math>(p,q)</math> in <math>R</math>, for all α in Λ:
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| for all <math>p'</math> in <math>S</math>,
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| ::<math>
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| p \overset{\alpha}{\rightarrow} p'
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| </math>
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| :implies that there is a <math>q'</math> in <math>S</math> such that
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| ::<math>
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| q \overset{\alpha}{\rightarrow} q'
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| </math>
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| :and <math>(p',q') \in R</math>; | |
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| and, symmetrically, for all <math>q'</math> in <math>S</math> | |
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| ::<math>
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| q \overset{\alpha}{\rightarrow} q'
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| </math>
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| :implies that there is a <math>p'</math> in <math>S</math> such that
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| ::<math> | |
| p \overset{\alpha}{\rightarrow} p'
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| </math>
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| :and <math>(p',q') \in R</math>.
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| Given two states <math>p</math> and <math>q</math> in <math>S</math>, <math>p</math> is '''bisimilar''' to <math>q</math>, written <math>p \, \sim \, q</math>, if there is a bisimulation <math>R</math> such that <math>(p, q)</math> is in <math>R</math>.
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| The bisimilarity relation <math> \, \sim \, </math> is an [[equivalence relation]]. Furthermore, it is the largest bisimulation relation over a given transition system.
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| Note that it is not always the case that if <math>p</math> simulates <math>q</math> and <math>q</math> simulates <math>p</math> then they are bisimilar. For <math>p</math> and <math>q</math> to be bisimilar, the simulation between <math>p</math> and <math>q</math> must be the [[Binary relation|inverse]] of the simulation between <math>q</math> and <math>p</math>. Counter-example (in [[Calculus_of_Communicating_Systems|CCS]], describing a coffee machine) : <math>M=p.\overline{c}.M+p.\overline{t}.M+p.(\overline{c}.M+\overline{t}.M)</math> and <math>M'=p.(\overline{c}M'+\overline{t}M')</math> simulate each other but are not bisimilar.
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| == Alternative definitions ==
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| === Relational definition ===
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| Bisimulation can be defined in terms of [[composition of relations]] as follows.
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| Given a [[state transition system|labelled state transition system]] <math>(S, \Lambda, \rightarrow)</math>, a ''bisimulation'' [[Relation (mathematics)|relation]] is a [[binary relation]] <math>R</math> over <math>S</math> (i.e., <math>R</math> ⊆ <math>S</math> × <math>S</math>) such that <math>\forall\alpha\in\Lambda</math>
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| ::<math>R\ ;\ \overset{\alpha}{\rightarrow}\quad {\subseteq}\quad \overset{\alpha}{\rightarrow}\ ;\ R</math>
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| :and
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| ::<math>R^{-1}\ ;\ \overset{\alpha}{\rightarrow}\quad {\subseteq}\quad \overset{\alpha}{\rightarrow}\ ;\ R^{-1}</math>
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| From the monotonicity and continuity of relation composition, it follows immediately that the set of the bisimulations is closed under unions (joins in the poset of relations), and a simple algebraic calculation shows that the relation of bisimilarity—the join of all bisimulations—is an equivalence relation. This definition, and the associated treatment of bisimilarity, can be interpreted in any involutive [[quantale]].
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| === Fixpoint definition ===
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| Bisimilarity can also be defined in [[Order_theory|order theoretical]] fashion, in terms of [[Knaster–Tarski_theorem|fixpoint theory]], more precisely as the greatest fixed point of a certain function defined below.
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| Given a [[state transition system|labelled state transition system]] (<math>S</math>, Λ, →), define <math>F:\mathcal{P}(S \times S) \to \mathcal{P}(S \times S)</math> to be a function from binary relations over <math>S</math> to binary relations over <math>S</math>, as follows:
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| Let <math>R</math> be any binary relation over <math>S</math>. <math>F(R)</math> is defined to be the set of all pairs <math>(p,q)</math> in <math>S</math> × <math>S</math> such that:
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| :<math>
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| \forall \alpha \in \Lambda. \, \forall p' \in S. \,
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| p \overset{\alpha}{\rightarrow} p' \, \Rightarrow \,
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| \exists q' \in S. \, q \overset{\alpha}{\rightarrow} q' \,\textrm{ and }\, (p',q') \in R
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| </math> | |
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| and
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| :<math>
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| \forall \alpha \in \Lambda. \, \forall q' \in S. \,
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| q \overset{\alpha}{\rightarrow} q' \, \Rightarrow \,
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| \exists p' \in S. \, p \overset{\alpha}{\rightarrow} p' \,\textrm{ and }\, (p',q') \in R
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| </math>
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| Bisimilarity is then defined to be the [[greatest fixed point]] of <math>F</math>.
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| === Game theoretical definition ===
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| Bisimulation can also be thought of in terms of a game between two players: attacker and defender.
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| "Attacker" goes first and may choose any valid transition, <math>\alpha</math>, from <math>(p,q)</math>. I.e.:
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| <math>
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| (p,q) \overset{\alpha}{\rightarrow} (p',q)
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| </math>
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| or
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| <math>
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| (p,q) \overset{\alpha}{\rightarrow} (p,q')
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| </math>
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| The "Defender" must then attempt to match that transition, <math>\alpha</math> from either <math>(p',q)</math> or <math>(p,q')</math> depending on the attacker's move.
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| I.e., they must find an <math>\alpha</math> such that:
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| <math>
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| (p',q) \overset{\alpha}{\rightarrow} (p',q')
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| </math>
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| or
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| <math>
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| (p,q') \overset{\alpha}{\rightarrow} (p',q')
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| </math>
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| Attacker and defender continue to take alternating turns until:
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| * The defender is unable to find any valid transitions to match the attacker's move. In this case the attacker wins.
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| * The game reaches states <math>(p,q)</math> which are both 'dead' (i.e., there are no transitions from either state) In this case the defender wins
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| * The game goes on forever, in which case the defender wins.
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| * The game reaches states <math>(p,q)</math>, which have already been visited. This is equivalent to an infinite play and counts as a win for the defender.
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| By the above definition the system is a bisimulation if and only if there exists a winning strategy for the defender.
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| === Coalgebraic definition ===
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| A bisimulation for state transition systems is a special case of coalgebraic bisimulation for the type of covariant powerset functor.
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| Note that every state transition system <math>(S, \Lambda, \rightarrow)</math> is bijectively a function <math>\xi_{\rightarrow} </math> from <math>S</math> to the powerset of <math>S</math> indexed by <math>\Lambda</math> written as <math>\mathcal{P}(\Lambda \times S)</math>, defined by
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| ::<math> p \mapsto \{ (\alpha, q) \in S : p \overset{\alpha}{\rightarrow} q \}.</math>
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| Let <math>\pi_i \colon S \times S \to S</math> be <math>i</math>-th projection mapping
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| <math>(p, q)</math> to <math>p</math> and <math>q</math> respectively for <math>i = 1, 2</math>; and
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| <math>\mathcal{P}(\Lambda \times \pi_1)</math> the forward image of <math>\pi_1</math> defined by dropping the third component
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| ::<math> P \mapsto \{ (a, p) \in \Lambda \times S : \exists q . (a, p, q) \in P \}</math>
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| where <math>P</math> is a subset of <math>\Lambda \times S \times S</math>. Similarly for <math>\mathcal{P}(\Lambda \times \pi_2)</math>.
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| Using the above notations, a relation <math>R \subseteq S \times S </math> is a '''bisimulation''' on a transition system <math>(S, \Lambda, \rightarrow)</math> if and only if there exists a transition system <math>\gamma \colon R \to \mathcal{P}(\Lambda \times R)</math> on the relation <math>R</math> such that the diagram
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| [[image:Coalgebraic bisimulation.svg|frameless|upright=1.5]]
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| commutes, i.e. for <math>i = 1, 2</math>, the equations
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| :: <math> \xi_\rightarrow \circ \pi_i = \mathcal{P}(\Lambda \times \pi_i) \circ \gamma </math>
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| hold
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| where <math>\xi_{\rightarrow}</math> is the functional representation of <math>(S, \Lambda, \rightarrow)</math>.
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| == Variants of bisimulation ==
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| In special contexts the notion of bisimulation is sometimes refined by adding additional requirements or constraints. For example if the state transition system includes a notion of ''silent'' (or ''internal'') action, often denoted with <math>\tau</math>, i.e. actions which are not visible by external observers, then bisimulation can be relaxed to be ''weak bisimulation'', in which if two states <math>p</math> and <math>q</math> are bisimilar and there is some number of internal actions leading from <math>p</math> to some state <math>p'</math> then there must exist state <math>q'</math> such that there is some number (possibly zero) of internal actions leading from <math>q</math> to <math>q'</math>.
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| Typically, if the [[state transition system]] gives the [[operational semantics]] of a [[programming language]], then the precise definition of bisimulation will be specific to the restrictions of the programming language. Therefore, in general, there may be more than one kind of bisimulation, (bisimilarity resp.) relationship depending on the context.
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| == Bisimulation and modal logic ==
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| Since [[Kripke semantics|Kripke models]] are a special case of (labelled) state transition systems, bisimulation is also a topic in [[modal logic]]. In fact, modal logic is the fragment of [[first-order logic]] invariant under bisimulation ([[Johan van Benthem (logician)|Van Benthem's theorem]]).
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| == See also ==
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| * [[Operational semantics]]
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| * [[State transition system]]s
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| * [[Simulation preorder]]
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| * [[Congruence relation]]
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| * [[Probabilistic bisimulation]]
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| == Software tools ==
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| * [[CADP]]: [http://cadp.inria.fr tools to minimize and compare finite-state systems according to various bisimulations]
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| * [http://www.brics.dk/bisim/ The Bisimulation Game Game]
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| == References ==
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| # {{Cite conference
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| | first = David
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| | last = Park
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| | year = 1981
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| | title = Concurrency and Automata on Infinite Sequences
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| | conference = Proceedings of the 5th GI-Conference, Karlsruhe
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| | booktitle = Theoretical Computer Science
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| | series = [[Lecture Notes in Computer Science]]
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| | editor = Deussen, Peter
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| | pages = 167–183
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| | volume = 104
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| | publisher = [[Springer-Verlag]]
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| | isbn = 978-3-540-10576-3
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| | doi = 10.1007/BFb0017309
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| }}
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| # {{Cite book
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| | last = Milner
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| | first = Robin
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| | title = Communication and Concurrency
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| | year = 1989
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| | publisher = [[Prentice Hall]]
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| | isbn = 0-13-114984-9
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| }}
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| ==Further reading==
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| * Davide Sangiorgi. (2011). ''Introduction to Bisimulation and Coinduction''. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 9781107003637
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| [[Category:Theoretical computer science]]
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| [[Category:Formal methods]]
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| [[Category:Logic in computer science]]
| |
Before playing a new tutorial game, read the more indulgent book. Most betting games have a book you actually can purchase separately. You may want in consider doing this in addition to reading it before you play, or even while you are playing. This way, you can easily get the most out of your game be.
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So if you feel like you really targeted your enemy spot on in a player with the dice and still missed, verification what weapon you seem to be using. Just resembling in real life, a number of weapons have different strengths and weaknesses. The type of weapon you are generating may not have the entire short distance required or the weapon recoil is ordinarily actually putting you vaguely off target.
This testing has apparent in which it this appraisement algorithm strategy consists of a alternation of beeline band quests. They are possibly not things to consider different versions of arced graphs. I will explain why later.
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