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| {{merge from|Euclidean simplex|discuss=talk: Simplex #Euclidean simplex|date=April 2013}}
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| [[Image:tetrahedron.png|thumb|A regular 3-simplex or [[tetrahedron]]]]
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| In [[geometry]], a '''simplex''' (plural ''simplexes'' or ''simplices'') is a generalization of the notion of a [[triangle]] or [[tetrahedron]] to arbitrary [[dimensions]].
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| Specifically, a '''''k''-simplex''' is a ''k''-dimensional [[polytope]] which is the [[convex hull]] of its ''k'' + 1 [[Vertex (geometry)|vertices]].
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| More formally, suppose the ''k'' + 1 points <math>u_0,\dots, u_k \in \mathbb{R}^k </math> are affinely independent, which means <math> u_1 - u_0,\dots, u_k-u_0 </math> are linearly independent.
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| Then, the simplex determined by them is the set of points <math> C =\{\theta_0 u_0 + \dots+\theta_k u_k | \theta_i \ge 0, 0 \le i \le k, \sum_{i=0}^{k} \theta_i=1\} </math>.
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| For example, a 2-simplex is a triangle, a 3-simplex is a tetrahedron, and a 4-simplex is a [[5-cell]]. A single [[point (geometry)|point]] may be considered a 0-simplex, and a [[line segment]] may be considered a 1-simplex. A simplex may be defined as the smallest [[convex set]] containing the given vertices.
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| A '''regular simplex'''<ref>{{citation | last = Elte | first = E. L. | title = The Semiregular Polytopes of the Hyperspaces | publisher = University of Groningen | location = Groningen | year = 1912}} Chapter IV, five dimensional semiregular polytope</ref> is a simplex that is also a [[regular polytope]]. A regular ''n''-simplex may be constructed from a regular (''n'' − 1)-simplex by connecting a new vertex to all original vertices by the common edge length.
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| In [[topology]] and [[combinatorics]], it is common to “glue together” simplices to form a [[simplicial complex]]. The associated combinatorial structure is called an [[abstract simplicial complex]], in which context the word “simplex” simply means any [[finite set]] of vertices.
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| == Elements ==<!-- This section is linked from [[Simplicial complex]] -->
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| The convex hull of any nonempty subset of the ''n''+1 points that define an n-simplex is called a '''''face''''' of the simplex. Faces are simplices themselves. In particular, the convex hull of a subset of size ''m''+1 (of the ''n''+1 defining points) is an m-simplex, called an '''''m''-face''' of the n-simplex. The 0-faces (i.e., the defining points themselves as sets of size 1) are called the '''vertices''' (singular: vertex), the 1-faces are called the '''edges''', the (''n'' − 1)-faces are called the '''facets''', and the sole ''n''-face is the whole ''n''-simplex itself. In general, the number of ''m''-faces is equal to the [[binomial coefficient]] <math>\tbinom{n+1}{m+1}</math>. Consequently, the number of ''m''-faces of an ''n''-simplex may be found in column (''m'' + 1) of row (''n'' + 1) of [[Pascal's triangle]]. A simplex ''A'' is a '''coface''' of a simplex ''B'' if ''B'' is a face of ''A''. ''Face'' and ''facet'' can have different meanings when describing types of simplices in a [[simplicial complex]]. See [[Simplicial complex#Definitions]]
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| The '''regular simplex''' family is the first of three [[regular polytope]] families, labeled by [[Coxeter]] as ''α<sub>n</sub>'', the other two being the [[cross-polytope]] family, labeled as ''β<sub>n</sub>'', and the [[hypercube]]s, labeled as ''γ<sub>n</sub>''. A fourth family, the [[hypercubic honeycomb|infinite tessellation of hypercubes]], he labeled as ''δ<sub>n</sub>''.
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| The number of ''1''-faces (edges) of the ''n''-simplex is the (''n''-1)th [[triangle number]], the number of ''2''-faces of the ''n''-simplex is the (''n''-2)th [[tetrahedron number]], the number of ''3''-faces of the ''n''-simplex is the (''n''-3)th 5-cell number, and so on.
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| {| class="wikitable"
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| |+ n-Simplex elements<ref>{{SloanesRef |sequencenumber=A135278|name=Pascal's triangle with its left-hand edge removed}}</ref>
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| |-
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| ! Δ<sup>n</sup>
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| ! Name
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| ![[Schläfli symbol]]<br />[[Coxeter-Dynkin diagram|Coxeter-Dynkin]]
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| ! ''0''-<br>faces<br><small>(vertices)</small>
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| ! ''1''-<br>faces<br><small>(edges)</small>
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| ! ''2''-<br>faces<br><small> </small>
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| ! ''3''-<br>faces<br><small> </small>
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| ! ''4''-<br>faces<br><small> </small>
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| ! ''5''-<br>faces<br><small> </small>
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| ! ''6''-<br>faces<br><small> </small>
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| ! ''7''-<br>faces<br><small> </small>
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| ! ''8''-<br>faces<br><small> </small>
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| ! ''9''-<br>faces<br><small> </small>
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| ! ''10''-<br>faces<br><small> </small>
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| ! '''Sum'''<br>=2<sup>n+1</sup>-1
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| |-
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| ! Δ<sup>0</sup>
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| | ''0-simplex''<br />([[Vertex (geometry)|point]])
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| | 1
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| | '''1'''
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| |-
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| ! Δ<sup>1</sup>
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| | ''1-simplex''<br />([[Edge (geometry)|line segment]])
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| |{}<br />{{CDD|node_1}}
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| | 2
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| | 1
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| | '''3'''
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| |-
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| ! Δ<sup>2</sup>
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| | ''2-simplex''<br />([[triangle]])
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| |{3}<br />{{CDD|node_1|3|node}}
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| | 3
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| | 3
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| | 1
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| | '''7'''
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| |-
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| ! Δ<sup>3</sup>
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| | ''3-simplex''<br />([[tetrahedron]])
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| |{3,3}<br />{{CDD|node_1|3|node|3|node}}
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| | 4
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| | 6
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| | 4
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| | 1
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| | '''15'''
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| |-
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| ! Δ<sup>4</sup>
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| | ''4-simplex''<br />([[5-cell]])
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| |{3,3,3}<br />{{CDD|node_1|3|node|3|node|3|node}}
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| | 5
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| | 10
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| | 10
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| | 5
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| | 1
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| | '''31'''
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| |-
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| ! Δ<sup>5</sup>
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| | ''[[5-simplex]]''
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| |{3,3,3,3}<br />{{CDD|node_1|3|node|3|node|3|node|3|node}}
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| | 6
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| | 15
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| | 20
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| | 15
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| | 6
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| | 1
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| | '''63'''
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| |-
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| ! Δ<sup>6</sup>
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| | ''[[6-simplex]]''
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| |{3,3,3,3,3}<br />{{CDD|node_1|3|node|3|node|3|node|3|node|3|node}}
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| | 7
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| | 21
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| | 35
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| | 35
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| | 21
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| | 7
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| | 1
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| | '''127'''
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| |-
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| ! Δ<sup>7</sup>
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| | ''[[7-simplex]]''
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| |{3,3,3,3,3,3}<br />{{CDD|node_1|3|node|3|node|3|node|3|node|3|node|3|node}}
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| | 8
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| | 28
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| | 56
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| | 70
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| | 56
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| | 28
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| | 8
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| | 1
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| | '''255'''
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| |-
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| ! Δ<sup>8</sup>
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| | ''[[8-simplex]]''
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| |{3,3,3,3,3,3,3}<br />{{CDD|node_1|3|node|3|node|3|node|3|node|3|node|3|node|3|node}}
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| | 9
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| | 36
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| | 84
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| | 126
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| | 126
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| | 84
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| | 36
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| | 9
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| | 1
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| | '''511'''
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| |-
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| ! Δ<sup>9</sup>
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| | ''[[9-simplex]]''
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| |{3,3,3,3,3,3,3,3}<br />{{CDD|node_1|3|node|3|node|3|node|3|node|3|node|3|node|3|node|3|node}}
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| | 10
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| | 45
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| | 120
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| | 210
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| | 252
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| | 210
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| | 120
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| | 45
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| | 10
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| | 1
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| | '''1023'''
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| |-
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| ! Δ<sup>10</sup>
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| | ''[[10-simplex]]''
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| |{3,3,3,3,3,3,3,3,3}<br />{{CDD|node_1|3|node|3|node|3|node|3|node|3|node|3|node|3|node|3|node|3|node}}
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| | 11
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| | 55
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| | 165
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| | 330
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| | 462
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| | 462
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| | 330
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| | 165
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| | 55
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| | 11
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| | 1
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| | '''2047'''
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| |}
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| {|
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| |[[File:Pascal's triangle 5.svg|thumb|300px|The numbers of faces in the above table are the same as in [[Pascal's triangle]], without the left diagonal.]]
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| [[File:Tesseract tetrahedron shadow matrices.svg|thumb|300px|The total number of faces is always a [[power of two]] minus one. This figure (a projection of the [[tesseract]]) shows the centroids of the 15 faces of the tetrahedron.]]
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| |}
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| In some conventions,<ref>Kozlov, Dimitry, ''Combinatorial Algebraic Topology'', 2008, Springer-Verlag (Series: Algorithms and Computation in Mathematics)</ref> the empty set is defined to be a (−1)-simplex. The definition of the simplex above still makes sense if ''n'' = −1. This convention is more common in applications to algebraic topology (such as [[simplicial homology]]) than to the study of polytopes.
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| <br clear=all>
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| == Symmetric graphs of regular simplices ==
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| These [[Petrie polygon]] (skew orthogonal projections) show all the vertices of the regular simplex on a circle, and all vertex pairs connected by edges.
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| {| class=wikitable
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| |- align=center
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| |[[File:1-simplex t0.svg|100px]]<br />[[Line segment|1]]
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| |[[File:2-simplex t0.svg|100px]]<br />[[triangle|2]]
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| |[[File:3-simplex t0.svg|100px]]<br />[[tetrahedron|3]]
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| |[[File:4-simplex t0.svg|100px]]<br />[[5-cell|4]]
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| |[[File:5-simplex t0.svg|100px]]<br />[[5-simplex|5]]
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| |- align=center
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| |[[File:6-simplex t0.svg|100px]]<br />[[6-simplex|6]]
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| |[[File:7-simplex t0.svg|100px]]<br />[[7-simplex|7]]
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| |[[File:8-simplex t0.svg|100px]]<br />[[8-simplex|8]]
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| |[[File:9-simplex t0.svg|100px]]<br />[[9-simplex|9]]
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| |[[File:10-simplex t0.svg|100px]]<br />[[10-simplex|10]]
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| |- align=center
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| |[[File:11-simplex t0.svg|100px]]<br />[[11-simplex|11]]
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| |[[File:12-simplex t0.svg|100px]]<br />[[12-simplex|12]]
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| |[[File:13-simplex t0.svg|100px]]<br />[[13-simplex|13]]
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| |[[File:14-simplex t0.svg|100px]]<br />[[14-simplex|14]]
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| |[[File:15-simplex t0.svg|100px]]<br />[[15-simplex|15]]
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| |- align=center
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| |[[File:16-simplex t0.svg|100px]]<br />[[16-simplex|16]]
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| |[[File:17-simplex t0.svg|100px]]<br />[[17-simplex|17]]
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| |[[File:18-simplex t0.svg|100px]]<br />[[18-simplex|18]]
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| |[[File:19-simplex t0.svg|100px]]<br />[[19-simplex|19]]
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| |[[File:20-simplex t0.svg|100px]]<br />[[20-simplex|20]]
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| |}
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| == The standard simplex ==
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| [[Image:2D-simplex.svg|150px|thumb|right|The standard 2-simplex in '''R'''<sup>3</sup>]]
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| The '''standard ''n''-simplex''' (or '''unit ''n''-simplex''') is the subset of '''R'''<sup>''n''+1</sup> given by
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| :<math>\Delta^n = \left\{(t_0,\cdots,t_n)\in\mathbb{R}^{n+1}\mid\sum_{i = 0}^{n}{t_i} = 1 \mbox{ and } t_i \ge 0 \mbox{ for all } i\right\}</math>
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| The simplex Δ<sup>''n''</sup> lies in the [[affine hyperplane]] obtained by removing the restriction ''t''<sub>''i''</sub> ≥ 0 in the above definition. The standard simplex is clearly regular.
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| The ''n''+1 vertices of the standard ''n''-simplex are the points ''e''<sub>''i''</sub> ∈ '''R'''<sup>''n''+1</sup>, where
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| :''e''<sub>0</sub> = (1, 0, 0, ..., 0),
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| :''e''<sub>1</sub> = (0, 1, 0, ..., 0),
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| :<math>\vdots</math>
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| :''e''<sub>''n''</sub> = (0, 0, 0, ..., 1).
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| There is a canonical map from the standard ''n''-simplex to an arbitrary ''n''-simplex with vertices (''v''<sub>0</sub>, …, ''v''<sub>''n''</sub>) given by
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| :<math>(t_0,\cdots,t_n) \mapsto \sum_{i = 0}^n t_i v_i</math>
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| The coefficients ''t''<sub>''i''</sub> are called the [[barycentric coordinates (mathematics)|barycentric coordinates]] of a point in the ''n''-simplex. Such a general simplex is often called an '''affine ''n''-simplex''', to emphasize that the canonical map is an [[affine transformation]]. It is also sometimes called an '''oriented affine ''n''-simplex''' to emphasize that the canonical map may be [[orientation (mathematics)|orientation preserving]] or reversing.
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| More generally, there is a canonical map from the standard <math>(n-1)</math>-simplex (with ''n'' vertices) onto any [[polytope]] with ''n'' vertices, given by the same equation (modifying indexing):
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| :<math>(t_1,\cdots,t_n) \mapsto \sum_{i = 1}^n t_i v_i</math>
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| These are known as [[generalized barycentric coordinates]], and express every polytope as the ''image'' of a simplex: <math>\Delta^{n-1} \twoheadrightarrow P.</math>
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| ===Increasing coordinates===
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| An alternative coordinate system is given by taking the [[indefinite sum]]:
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| :<math>\begin{align}
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| s_0 &= 0\\
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| s_1 &= s_0 + t_0 = t_0\\
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| s_2 &= s_1 + t_1 = t_0 + t_1\\
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| s_3 &= s_2 + t_2 = t_0 + t_1 + t_2\\
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| &\dots\\
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| s_n &= s_{n-1} + t_{n-1} = t_0 + t_1 + \dots + t_{n-1}\\
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| s_{n+1} &= s_n + t_n = t_0 + t_1 + \dots + t_n = 1
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| \end{align}
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| </math>
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| This yields the alternative presentation by ''order,'' namely as nondecreasing ''n''-tuples between 0 and 1:
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| :<math>\Delta_*^n = \left\{(s_1,\cdots,s_n)\in\mathbb{R}^n\mid 0 = s_0 \leq s_1 \leq s_2 \leq \dots \leq s_n \leq s_{n+1} = 1 \right\}.</math> | |
| Geometrically, this is an ''n''-dimensional subset of <math>\mathbb{R}^n</math> (maximal dimension, codimension 0) rather than of <math>\mathbb{R}^{n+1}</math> (codimension 1). The facets, which on the standard simplex correspond to one coordinate vanishing, <math>t_i=0,</math> here correspond to successive coordinates being equal, <math>s_i=s_{i+1},</math> while the interior corresponds to the inequalities becoming ''strict'' (increasing sequences).
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| A key distinction between these presentations is the behavior under permuting coordinates – the standard simplex is stabilized by permuting coordinates, while permuting elements of the "ordered simplex" do not leave it invariant, as permuting an ordered sequence generally makes it unordered. Indeed, the ordered simplex is a (closed) [[fundamental domain]] for the action of the symmetric group on the ''n''-cube, meaning that the orbit of the ordered simplex under the ''n''! elements of the symmetric group divides the ''n''-cube into <math>n!</math> mostly disjoint simplices (disjoint except for boundaries), showing that this simplex has volume <math>1/n!</math> Alternatively, the volume can be computed by an iterated integral, whose successive integrands are <math>1,x,x^2/2,x^3/3!,\dots,x^n/n!</math>
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| A further property of this presentation is that it uses the order but not addition, and thus can be defined in any dimension over any ordered set, and for example can be used to define an infinite-dimensional simplex without issues of convergence of sums.
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| ===Projection onto the standard simplex===
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| Especially in numerical applications of [[probability theory]] a [[Graphical projection|projection]] onto the standard simplex is of interest. Given <math>\, (p_i)_i</math> with possibly negative entries, the closest point <math>\left(t_i\right)_i</math> on the simplex has coordinates
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| :<math>t_i= \max\{p_i+\Delta\, ,0\},</math>
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| where <math>\Delta</math> is chosen such that <math>\sum_i\max\{p_i+\Delta\, ,0\}=1.</math>
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| <math>\Delta</math> can be easily calculated from sorting <math>p_i</math>.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://arxiv.org/abs/1101.6081 |title=Projection Onto A Simplex |author=Yunmei Chen, Xiaojing Ye |publisher=Arxiv |accessdate=9 February 2012}}</ref>
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| The sorting approach takes <math>O( n \log n)</math> complexity, which can be improved to <math>O(n)</math> complexity via [[Selection algorithm|median-finding]] algorithms.<ref>{{cite doi|10.1016/0167-6377(89)90064-3}}</ref> Projecting onto the simplex is computational similar to projecting onto the <math>\ell_1</math> ball.
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| ===Corner of cube===
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| Finally, a simple variant is to replace "summing to 1" with "summing to at most 1"; this raises the dimension by 1, so to simplify notation, the indexing changes:
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| :<math>\Delta_c^n = \left\{(t_1,\cdots,t_n)\in\mathbb{R}^n\mid\sum_{i = 1}^{n}{t_i} \leq 1 \mbox{ and } t_i \ge 0 \mbox{ for all } i\right\}.</math>
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| This yields an ''n''-simplex as a corner of the ''n''-cube, and is a standard orthogonal simplex. This is the simplex used in the [[simplex method]], which is based at the origin, and locally models a vertex on a polytope with ''n'' facets.
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| ==Cartesian coordinates for regular ''n''-dimensional simplex in R<sup>''n''</sup>==
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| The coordinates of the vertices of a regular ''n''-dimensional simplex can be obtained from these two properties,
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| # For a regular simplex, the distances of its vertices to its center are equal.
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| # The angle subtended by any two vertices of an ''n''-dimensional simplex through its center is <math>\arccos\left(\tfrac{-1}{n}\right)</math>
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| These can be used as follows. Let vectors (''v''<sub>0</sub>, ''v''<sub>1</sub>, ..., ''v''<sub>''n''</sub>) represent the vertices of an ''n''-simplex center the origin, all [[unit vector]]s so a distance 1 from the origin, satisfying the first property. The second property means the [[dot product]] between any pair of the vectors is <math>-1/n</math>. This can be used to calculate positions for them.
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| For example in three dimensions the vectors (''v''<sub>0</sub>, ''v''<sub>1</sub>, ''v''<sub>2</sub>, ''v''<sub>3</sub>) are the vertices of a 3-simplex or tetrahedron. Write these as
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| : <math>\begin{pmatrix} x_0 \\ y_0 \\ z_0 \end{pmatrix}, \begin{pmatrix} x_1 \\ y_1 \\ z_1 \end{pmatrix}, \begin{pmatrix} x_2 \\ y_2 \\ z_2 \end{pmatrix}, \begin{pmatrix} x_3 \\ y_3 \\ z_3 \end{pmatrix}</math>
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| Choose the first vector ''v''<sub>0</sub> to have all but the first component zero, so by the first property it must be (1, 0, 0) and the vectors become
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| : <math>\begin{pmatrix} 1 \\ 0 \\ 0 \end{pmatrix}, \begin{pmatrix} x_1 \\ y_1 \\ z_1 \end{pmatrix}, \begin{pmatrix} x_2 \\ y_2 \\ z_2 \end{pmatrix}, \begin{pmatrix} x_3 \\ y_3 \\ z_3 \end{pmatrix}</math>
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| By the second property the dot product of ''v''<sub>0</sub> with all other vectors is -{{frac|1|3}}, so each of their ''x'' components must equal this, and the vectors become
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| : <math>\begin{pmatrix} 1 \\ 0 \\ 0 \end{pmatrix}, \begin{pmatrix} -\frac{1}{3} \\ y_1 \\ z_1 \end{pmatrix}, \begin{pmatrix} -\frac{1}{3} \\ y_2 \\ z_2 \end{pmatrix}, \begin{pmatrix} -\frac{1}{3} \\ y_3 \\ z_3 \end{pmatrix}</math>
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| Next choose ''v''<sub>1</sub> to have all but the first two elements zero. The second element is the only unknown. It can be calculated from the first property using the [[Pythagorean theorem]] (choose any of the two square roots), and so the second vector can be completed:
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| : <math>\begin{pmatrix} 1 \\ 0 \\ 0 \end{pmatrix}, \begin{pmatrix} -\frac{1}{3} \\ \frac{\sqrt{8}}{3} \\ 0 \end{pmatrix}, \begin{pmatrix} -\frac{1}{3} \\ y_2 \\ z_2 \end{pmatrix}, \begin{pmatrix} -\frac{1}{3} \\ y_3 \\ z_3 \end{pmatrix}</math>
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| The second property can be used to calculate the remaining ''y'' components, by taking the dot product of ''v''<sub>1</sub> with each and solving to give
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| : <math>\begin{pmatrix} 1 \\ 0 \\ 0 \end{pmatrix}, \begin{pmatrix} -\frac{1}{3} \\ \frac{\sqrt{8}}{3} \\ 0 \end{pmatrix}, \begin{pmatrix} -\frac{1}{3} \\ -\frac{\sqrt{2}}{3} \\ z_2 \end{pmatrix}, \begin{pmatrix} -\frac{1}{3} \\ -\frac{\sqrt{2}}{3} \\ z_3 \end{pmatrix}</math>
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| From which the ''z'' components can be calculated, using the Pythagorean theorem again to satisfy the first property, the two possible square roots giving the two results
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| : <math>\begin{pmatrix} 1 \\ 0 \\ 0 \end{pmatrix}, \begin{pmatrix} -\frac{1}{3} \\ \frac{\sqrt{8}}{3} \\ 0 \end{pmatrix}, \begin{pmatrix} -\frac{1}{3} \\ -\frac{\sqrt{2}}{3} \\ \sqrt{\frac{2}{3}} \end{pmatrix}, \begin{pmatrix} -\frac{1}{3} \\ -\frac{\sqrt{2}}{3} \\ -\sqrt{\frac{2}{3}} \end{pmatrix}</math>
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| This process can be carried out in any dimension, using ''n'' + 1 vectors, applying the first and second properties alternately to determine all the values.
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| == Geometric properties ==
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| === Volume ===
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| The oriented [[volume]] of an ''n''-simplex in ''n''-dimensional space with vertices (''v''<sub>0</sub>, ..., ''v''<sub>''n''</sub>) is
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| :<math>
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| {1\over n!}\det
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| \begin{pmatrix}
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| v_1-v_0 & v_2-v_0& \dots & v_{n-1}-v_0 & v_n-v_0
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| \end{pmatrix}
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| </math>
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| | |
| where each column of the ''n'' × ''n'' [[determinant]] is the difference between the [[vector (geometry)|vectors]] representing two vertices. A derivation of a very similar formula can be found in.<ref>{{cite jstor|2315353}}</ref> Without the 1/''n''! it is the formula for the volume of an ''n''-[[parallelepiped]]. One way to understand the 1/''n''! factor is as follows. If the coordinates of a point in a unit ''n''-box are sorted, together with 0 and 1, and successive differences are taken, then since the results add to one, the result is a point in an ''n'' simplex spanned by the origin and the closest ''n'' vertices of the box. The taking of differences was a unimodular (volume-preserving) transformation, but sorting compressed the space by a factor of ''n''!.
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| The [[volume]] under a standard ''n''-simplex (i.e. between the origin and the simplex in '''R'''<sup>n+1</sup>) is
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| | |
| :<math>
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| {1 \over (n+1)!}
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| </math>
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| The [[volume]] of a regular ''n''-simplex with unit side length is
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| :<math>
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| {\frac{\sqrt{n+1}}{n!\sqrt{2^n}}}
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| </math>
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| | |
| as can be seen by multiplying the previous formula by ''x''<sup>''n+1''</sup>, to get the volume under the ''n''-simplex as a function of its vertex distance ''x'' from the origin, differentiating with respect to ''x'', at <math>x=1/\sqrt{2}</math> (where the ''n''-simplex side length is 1), and normalizing by the length <math>dx/\sqrt{n+1}\,</math> of the increment, <math>(dx/(n+1),\dots, dx/(n+1))</math>, along the normal vector.
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| | |
| The [[dihedral angle]] of a regular ''n''-dimensional simplex is cos<sup>−1</sup>(1/''n''),<ref>{{cite journal | journal = The American Mathematical Monthly | publisher = Mathematical Association of America | volume = 109 | issue = 8 | date = October 2002 | pages = 756–758 | title = An Elementary Calculation of the Dihedral Angle of the Regular n-Simplex | first1 = Harold R. | last1 = Parks | author1-link = Harold R. Parks | author2 = Dean C. Wills | url = http://www.jstor.org/stable/3072403 }}</ref><ref>{{cite book | publisher = Oregon State University | date = June 2009 | title = Connections between combinatorics of permutations and algorithms and geometry | author1 = Harold R. Parks | author2 = Dean C. Wills | url = http://ir.library.oregonstate.edu/xmlui/handle/1957/11929 }}</ref> while its central angle is cos<sup>−1</sup>(-1/''n'').<ref>{{citation|last=Salvia|first=Raffaele|year=2013|title=Basic geometric proof of the relation between dimensionality of a regular simplex and its dihedral angle|arxiv=1304.0967}}</ref>
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| ===Simplexes with an "orthogonal corner"===
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| Orthogonal corner means here, that there is a vertex at which all adjacent [[Facet (geometry)|facets]] are pairwise orthogonal. Such simplexes are generalizations of right angle triangles and for them there exists an n-dimensional version of the [[Pythagorean theorem]]:
| |
| | |
| The sum of the squared (n-1)-dimensional volumes of the facets adjacent to the orthogonal corner equals the squared (n-1)-dimensional volume of the facet opposite of the orthogonal corner.
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| | |
| :<math> \sum_{k=1}^{n} |A_{k}|^2 = |A_{0}|^2 </math>
| |
| where <math> A_{1} \ldots A_{n} </math> are facets being pairwise orthogonal to each other but not orthogonal to <math> A_{0} </math>, which is the facet opposite the orthogonal corner.
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| | |
| For a 2-simplex the theorem is the [[Pythagorean theorem]] for triangles with a right angle and for a 3-simplex it is [[de Gua's theorem]] for a tetrahedron
| |
| with a cube corner.
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| ===Relation to the (''n''+1)-hypercube===
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| The [[Hasse diagram]] of the face lattice of an ''n''-simplex is isomorphic to the graph of the (''n''+1)-[[hypercube]]'s edges, with the hypercube's vertices mapping to each of the ''n''-simplex's elements, including the entire simplex and the null polytope as the extreme points of the lattice (mapped to two opposite vertices on the hypercube). This fact may be used to efficiently enumerate the simplex's face lattice, since more general face lattice enumeration algorithms are more computationally expensive.
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| | |
| The ''n''-simplex is also the [[vertex figure]] of the (''n''+1)-hypercube. It is also the [[Facet (geometry)|facet]] of the (''n''+1)-[[orthoplex]].
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| ===Topology===
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| [[Topology|Topologically]], an ''n''-simplex is [[topologically equivalent|equivalent]] to an [[ball (mathematics)|''n''-ball]]. Every ''n''-simplex is an ''n''-dimensional [[manifold with corners]].
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| ===Probability===
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| {{Main|Categorical distribution}}
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| | |
| In probability theory, the points of the standard ''n''-simplex in <math>(n+1)</math>-space are the space of possible parameters (probabilities) of the [[categorical distribution]] on ''n''+1 possible outcomes.
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| == Algebraic topology ==
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| In [[algebraic topology]], simplices are used as building blocks to construct an interesting class of [[topological space]]s called [[simplicial complex]]es. These spaces are built from simplices glued together in a [[combinatorics|combinatorial]] fashion. Simplicial complexes are used to define a certain kind of [[homology (mathematics)|homology]] called [[simplicial homology]].
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| | |
| A finite set of ''k''-simplexes embedded in an [[open subset]] of '''R'''<sup>n</sup> is called an '''affine ''k''-chain'''. The simplexes in a chain need not be unique; they may occur with [[Multiplicity (mathematics)|multiplicity]]. Rather than using standard set notation to denote an affine chain, it is instead the standard practice to use plus signs to separate each member in the set. If some of the simplexes have the opposite [[orientation (mathematics)|orientation]], these are prefixed by a minus sign. If some of the simplexes occur in the set more than once, these are prefixed with an integer count. Thus, an affine chain takes the symbolic form of a sum with integer coefficients.
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| | |
| Note that each facet of an ''n''-simplex is an affine ''n-1''-simplex, and thus the [[boundary (topology)|boundary]] of an ''n''-simplex is an affine ''n-1''-chain. Thus, if we denote one positively-oriented affine simplex as
| |
| | |
| :<math>\sigma=[v_0,v_1,v_2,...,v_n]</math>
| |
| | |
| with the <math>v_j</math> denoting the vertices, then the boundary <math>\partial\sigma</math> of σ is the chain
| |
| | |
| :<math>\partial\sigma = \sum_{j=0}^n
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| (-1)^j [v_0,...,v_{j-1},v_{j+1},...,v_n]</math>.
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| | |
| It follows from this expression, and the linearity of the boundary operator, that the boundary of the boundary of a simplex is zero:
| |
| | |
| :<math>\partial^2\sigma = \partial ( ~ \sum_{j=0}^n
| |
| (-1)^j [v_0,...,v_{j-1},v_{j+1},...,v_n]~ ) =0. </math>
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| | |
| Likewise, the boundary of the boundary of a chain is zero: <math> \partial ^2 \rho =0 </math>.
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| | |
| More generally, a simplex (and a chain) can be embedded into a [[manifold]] by means of smooth, differentiable map <math>f\colon\mathbb{R}^n\rightarrow M</math>. In this case, both the summation convention for denoting the set, and the boundary operation commute with the embedding. That is,
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| | |
| :<math>f(\sum\nolimits_i a_i \sigma_i) = \sum\nolimits_i a_i f(\sigma_i)</math>
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| | |
| where the <math>a_i</math> are the integers denoting orientation and multiplicity. For the boundary operator <math>\partial</math>, one has:
| |
| | |
| :<math>\partial f(\rho) = f (\partial \rho)</math>
| |
| | |
| where ρ is a chain. The boundary operation commutes with the mapping because, in the end, the chain is defined as a set and little more, and the set operation always commutes with the [[function (mathematics)|map operation]] (by definition of a map).
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| | |
| A continuous map <math>f:\sigma\rightarrow X</math> to a [[topological space]] ''X'' is frequently referred to as a '''singular ''n''-simplex'''.
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| | |
| == Algebraic geometry ==
| |
| Since classical algebraic geometry allows to talk about polynomial equations, but not inequalities, the ''algebraic standard n-simplex'' is commonly defined as the subset of affine n+1-dimensional space, where all coordinates sum up to 1 (thus leaving out the inequality part). The algebraic description of this set is
| |
| | |
| :<math>\Delta^n := \{x \in \mathbb{A}^{n+1} \vert \sum_{i=1}^{n+1} x_i - 1 = 0\}</math>,
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| | |
| which equals the [[Scheme (mathematics)|scheme]]-theoretic description <math>\Delta_n(R) = Spec(R[\Delta^n])</math> with
| |
| | |
| :<math>R[\Delta^n] := R[x_1,...,x_{n+1}]/(\sum x_i -1)</math>
| |
| | |
| the ring of regular functions on the algebraic n-simplex (for any ring <math>R</math>).
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| By using the same definitions as for the classical n-simplex, the n-simplices for different dimensions n assemble into one [[simplicial object]], while the rings <math>R[\Delta^n]</math> assemble into one cosimplicial object <math>R[\Delta^\bullet]</math> (in the category of schemes resp. rings, since the face and degeneracy maps are all polynomial).
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| | |
| The algebraic n-simplices are used in higher [[K-Theory]] and in the definition of higher [[Chow groups]].
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| | |
| == Applications ==
| |
| {{Expand section|date=December 2009}}
| |
| Simplices are used in plotting quantities that sum to 1, such as proportions of subpopulations, as in a [[ternary plot]].
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| | |
| In [[applied statistics#industrial|industrial statistics]], simplices arise in problem formulation and in algorithmic solution. In the design of bread, the producer must combine yeast, flour, water, sugar, etc. In such [[mixture]]s, only the relative proportions of ingredients matters: For an optimal bread mixture, if the flour is doubled then the yeast should be doubled. Such mixture problem are often formulated with normalized constraints, so that the nonnegative components sum to one, in which case the feasible region forms a simplex. The quality of the bread mixtures can be estimated using [[response surface methodology]], and then a local maximum can be computed using a [[nonlinear programming]] method, such as [[sequential quadratic programming]].<ref>
| |
| {{cite book
| |
| |author=Cornell, John
| |
| |title=Experiments with Mixtures: Designs, Models, and the Analysis of Mixture Data
| |
| |edition=third
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| |publisher=Wiley
| |
| |year=2002
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| |isbn=0-471-07916-2
| |
| }}
| |
| </ref>
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| | |
| In [[operations research]], [[linear programming]] problems can be solved by the [[simplex algorithm]] of [[George Dantzig]].
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| | |
| In [[geometric design]] and [[computer graphics]], many methods first perform simplicial [[triangulation#simplicial|triangulation]]s of the domain and then [[interpolation|fit interpolating]] [[polynomial and rational function modeling|polynomials]] to each simplex.<ref>{{cite journal | last = Vondran | first = Gary L. |date=April 1998 | title = Radial and Pruned Tetrahedral Interpolation Techniques | journal = HP Technical Report | volume = HPL-98-95 | pages = 1–32 | url = http://www.hpl.hp.com/techreports/98/HPL-98-95.pdf | format = PDF}}</ref>
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| | |
| ==See also==
| |
| {{colbegin}}
| |
| * [[Causal dynamical triangulation]]
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| * [[Distance geometry]]
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| * [[Delaunay triangulation]]
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| * [[Hill tetrahedron]]
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| * Other regular n-[[polytope]]s
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| ** [[Hypercube]]
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| ** [[Cross-polytope]]
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| ** [[Tesseract]]
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| * [[Polytope]]
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| * [[Metcalfe's Law]]
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| * [[List of regular polytopes]]
| |
| * [[Schläfli orthoscheme]]
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| * [[Simplex algorithm]] - a method for solving optimisation problems with inequalities.
| |
| * [[Simplicial complex]]
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| * [[Simplicial homology]]
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| * [[Simplicial set]]
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| * [[Ternary plot]]
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| * [[3-sphere]]
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| {{colend}}
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| | |
| ==Notes==
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| {{reflist}}
| |
| | |
| ==References==
| |
| | |
| * [[Walter Rudin]], ''Principles of Mathematical Analysis (Third Edition)'', (1976) McGraw-Hill, New York, ISBN 0-07-054235-X ''(See chapter 10 for a simple review of topological properties.)''.
| |
| * [[Andrew S. Tanenbaum]], ''Computer Networks (4th Ed)'', (2003) Prentice Hall, ISBN 0-13-066102-3 ''(See 2.5.3)''.
| |
| * Luc Devroye, ''[http://cg.scs.carleton.ca/~luc/rnbookindex.html Non-Uniform Random Variate Generation].'' (1986) ISBN 0-387-96305-7; Web version freely downloadable.
| |
| * [[H.S.M. Coxeter]], ''[[Regular Polytopes (book)|Regular Polytopes]]'', Third edition, (1973), Dover edition, ISBN 0-486-61480-8
| |
| ** p120-121
| |
| ** p. 296, Table I (iii): Regular Polytopes, three regular polytopes in n-dimensions (n>=5)
| |
| * {{mathworld|urlname=Simplex|title=Simplex}}
| |
| * [[Stephen Boyd]] and [[Lieven Vandenberghe]], ''Convex Optimization'', (2004) Cambridge University Press, New York, NY, USA.
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| ==External links==
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| *{{GlossaryForHyperspace | anchor=Simplex | title=Simplex }}
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| {{Dimension topics}}
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| {{Polytopes}}
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| [[Category:Polytopes]]
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| [[Category:Topology]]
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| [[Category:Multi-dimensional geometry]]
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