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{{about|the set-theoretic notion of relation|a more elementary point of view|binary relation|a combinatorial viewpoint|theory of relations}}
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{{Other uses2|Relation}}


In mathematics, a '''finitary relation''' has a finite number of "places". In [[set theory]] and [[logic]], a ''relation'' is a property that assigns [[truth values]] to <math>k</math>-[[tuple]]s of individuals. Typically, the property describes a possible connection between the components of a <math>k</math>-tuple. For a given [[Set (mathematics)|set]] of <math>k</math>-tuples, a truth value is assigned to each <math>k</math>-tuple according to whether the property does or does not hold.
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An example of a ''[[ternary relation]]'' (i.e., between three individuals) is: "<math>X</math> was introduced to <math>Y</math> by <math>Z</math>", where <math>\left(X, Y, Z\right)</math> is a 3-tuple of persons; for example, "[[Beatrice Wood]] was introduced to [[Henri-Pierre Roché]] by [[Marcel Duchamp]]" is true, while "[[Karl Marx]] was introduced to [[Friedrich Engels]] by [[Queen Victoria]]" is false.
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The variable <math>k</math> giving the number of "''places''" in the relation, 3 for the above example, is a [[non-negative]] [[integer]], called the relation's ''[[arity]]'', ''adicity'', or ''[[dimension]]''. A relation with <math>k</math> places is variously called a <math>k</math>''-ary'', a <math>k</math>''-adic'', or a <math>k</math>''-dimensional'' relation. Relations with a finite number of places are called ''finite-place'' or ''[[finitary]]'' relations. It is possible to generalize the concept to include ''infinitary'' relations between infinitudes of individuals, for example [[infinite sequence]]s; however, in this article only finitary relations are discussed, which will from now on simply be called relations.
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Since there is only one 0-tuple, the so-called empty tuple (&nbsp;), there are only two zero-place relations: the one that always holds, and the one that never holds. They are sometimes useful for constructing the base case of an [[mathematical induction|induction]] argument. One-place relations are called ''unary relations''. For instance, any set (such as the collection of [[Nobel laureates]]) can be viewed as a collection of individuals having some property (such as that of having been awarded the [[Nobel prize]]). Two-place relations are called [[binary relation]]s or, in the past, ''dyadic relations''.  [[Binary relation]]s are very common, given the ubiquity of relations such as:
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* [[Equality (mathematics)|Equality]] and [[inequality (mathematics)|inequality]], denoted by signs such as '<math>=</math>' and '<math><</math>' in statements like '<math>5 < 12</math>';
* Being a [[divisor]] of, denoted by the sign '<math>\mid</math>' in statements like '<math>13 \mid 143</math>';


* [[Element (mathematics)|Set membership]], denoted by the sign '<math>\in</math>' in statements like '<math>1 \in \mathbb{N}</math>'.
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A <math>k</math>''-ary'' relation is a straightforward generalization of a binary relation.
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''Relation'' is formally defined in the next section. In this section we introduce the concept of a relation with a familiar everyday example. Consider the relation involving three roles that people might play, expressed in a statement of the form "''X'' thinks that ''Y'' likes ''Z''&nbsp;". The facts of a concrete situation could be organized in a Table like the following:
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! Person X !! Person Y !! Person Z
 
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| Alice || Bob ||Denise
 
|-
</ul>
| Charles || Alice || Bob
|-
| Charles || Charles || Alice
|-
| Denise || Denise || Denise
|}
 
Each row of the Table records a fact or makes an assertion of the form "''X'' thinks that ''Y'' likes ''Z''&nbsp;". For instance, the first row says, in effect, "Alice thinks that Bob likes Denise". The Table represents a relation ''S'' over the set ''P'' of people under discussion:
 
: ''P'' = {Alice, Bob, Charles, Denise}.
 
The data of the Table are equivalent to the following set of ordered triples:
 
: ''S'' = {(Alice,&nbsp;Bob,&nbsp;Denise), (Charles,&nbsp;Alice,&nbsp;Bob), (Charles,&nbsp;Charles,&nbsp;Alice), (Denise,&nbsp;Denise,&nbsp;Denise)}.
 
By a slight abuse of notation, it is usual to write ''S''(Alice,&nbsp;Bob,&nbsp;Denise) to say the same thing as the first row of the Table. The relation ''S'' is a ''ternary'' relation, since there are ''three'' items involved in each row. The relation itself is a [[mathematical object]] defined in terms of concepts from [[set theory]] (i.e., the relation is a subset of the [[Cartesian product]] on {Person X, Person Y, Person Z}), that carries all of the information from the Table in one neat package. Mathematically, then, a relation is simply an "ordered set".
 
The Table for relation ''S'' is an extremely simple example of a [[relational database]]. The theoretical aspects of databases are the specialty of one branch of [[computer science]], while their practical impacts have become all too familiar in our everyday lives. Computer scientists, logicians, and mathematicians, however, tend to see different things when they look at these concrete examples and samples of the more general concept of a relation.
 
For one thing, databases are designed to deal with empirical data, and experience is always finite, whereas mathematics at the very least concerns itself with potential infinity. This difference in perspective brings up a number of ideas that may be usefully introduced at this point, if by no means covered in depth.
 
==Formal definitions==
{{quote|When two objects, qualities, classes, or attributes, viewed together by the mind, are seen under some connexion, that connexion is called a relation.|[[Augustus De Morgan]]<ref>De Morgan, A. (1858) "On the syllogism, part 3" in Heath, P., ed. (1966) ''On the syllogism and other logical writings''. Routledge. P. 119,</ref>}}
 
The simpler of the two definitions of ''k''-place relations encountered in mathematics is:
 
'''Definition 1.''' A '''relation''' ''L'' over the sets ''X''<sub>1</sub>,&nbsp;…,&nbsp;''X''<sub>''k''</sub> is a [[subset]] of their [[Cartesian product]], written ''L'' ⊆ ''X''<sub>1</sub>&nbsp;&times;&nbsp;…&nbsp;&times;&nbsp;''X''<sub>''k''</sub>.
 
Relations are classified according to the number of sets in the defining Cartesian product, in other words, according to the number of terms following ''L''. Hence:
:* ''Lu'' denotes a [[unary relation]] or [[property (philosophy)|property]];
:* ''Luv'' or ''uLv'' denote a [[binary relation]];
:* ''Luvw'' denotes a [[ternary relation]];
:* ''Luvwx'' denotes a ''quaternary'' relation.
Relations with more than four terms are usually referred to as ''k''-ary or ''n''-ary, for example, "a 5-ary relation". A ''k''-ary relation is simply a set of ''k''-[[tuple]]s.
 
The second definition makes use of an idiom that is common in mathematics, stipulating that "such and such is an ''n''-tuple" in order to ensure that such and such a mathematical object is determined by the specification of ''n'' component mathematical objects. In the case of a relation ''L'' over ''k'' sets, there are ''k''&nbsp;+&nbsp;1 things to specify, namely, the ''k'' sets plus a subset of their Cartesian product. In the idiom, this is expressed by saying that ''L'' is a (''k''&nbsp;+&nbsp;1)-tuple.
 
'''Definition 2.''' A relation ''L'' over the sets ''X''<sub>1</sub>, …, ''X''<sub>''k''</sub> is a (''k''&nbsp;+&nbsp;1)-tuple ''L''&nbsp;=&nbsp;(''X''<sub>1</sub>,&nbsp;…,&nbsp;''X''<sub>''k''</sub>,&nbsp;''G''(''L'')), where ''G''(''L'') is a subset of the Cartesian product ''X''<sub>1</sub> &times;&nbsp;…&nbsp;&times; ''X''<sub>''k''</sub>. ''G''(''L'') is called the ''graph'' of ''L''.
 
Elements of a relation are more briefly denoted by using boldface characters, for example, the constant element <math>\mathbf{a}</math> = (a<sub>1</sub>,&nbsp;…,&nbsp;a<sub>''k''</sub>) or the variable element <math>\mathbf{x}</math> = (''x''<sub>1</sub>,&nbsp;…,&nbsp;''x''<sub>''k''</sub>).
 
A statement of the form "<math>\mathbf{a}</math> is in the relation ''L''&nbsp;" is taken to mean that <math>\mathbf{a}</math> is in ''L'' under the first definition and that <math>\mathbf{a}</math> is in ''G''(''L'') under the second definition.
 
The following considerations apply under either definition:
* The sets ''X''<sub>''j''</sub> for ''j'' = 1 to ''k'' are called the [[domain of a relation|domain]]s of the relation. Under the first definition, the relation does not uniquely determine a given sequence of domains.
* If all of the domains ''X''<sub>''j''</sub> are the same set ''X'', then it is simpler to refer to ''L'' as a ''k''-ary relation over ''X''.
* If any of the domains ''X''<sub>''j''</sub> is empty, then the defining Cartesian product is empty, and the only relation over such a sequence of domains is the empty relation ''L'' = <math>\varnothing</math>. Hence it is commonly stipulated that all of the domains be nonempty.
 
As a rule, whatever definition best fits the application at hand will be chosen for that purpose, and anything that falls under it will be called a relation for the duration of that discussion. If it becomes necessary to distinguish the two definitions, an entity satisfying the second definition may be called an ''embedded'' or ''included'' relation.
 
If ''L'' is a relation over the domains ''X''<sub>1</sub>, …, ''X''<sub>''k''</sub>, it is conventional to consider a sequence of terms called ''variables'', ''x''<sub>1</sub>, …, ''x''<sub>''k''</sub>, that are said to ''range over'' the respective domains.
 
Let a [[Boolean domain]] '''B''' be a two-element set, say, '''B''' = {0,&nbsp;1}, whose elements can be interpreted as logical values, typically 0&nbsp;=&nbsp;false and 1&nbsp;=&nbsp;true. The [[indicator function|characteristic function]] of the relation ''L'', written ''ƒ''<sub>''L''</sub> or χ(''L''), is the [[Boolean-valued function]] ''ƒ''<sub>''L''</sub>&nbsp;:&nbsp;''X''<sub>1</sub>&nbsp;&times;&nbsp;…&nbsp;&times;&nbsp;''X''<sub>''k''</sub>&nbsp;→&nbsp;'''B''', defined in such a way that ''ƒ''<sub>''L''</sub>(<math>\mathbf{x}</math>) = 1 just in case the ''k''-tuple <math>\mathbf{x}</math> is in the relation ''L''. Such a function can also be called an indicator function, particularly in probability and statistics, to avoid confusion with the notion of a [[characteristic function (probability theory)|characteristic function]] in probability theory.
 
It is conventional in applied mathematics, [[computer science]], and statistics to refer to a Boolean-valued function like ''ƒ''<sub>''L''</sub> as a ''k''-place [[predicate (mathematics)|predicate]]. From the more abstract viewpoint of [[formal logic]] and [[model theory]], the relation ''L'' constitutes a ''logical model'' or a ''relational structure'' that serves as one of many possible [[interpretation (logic)|interpretation]]s of some ''k''-place predicate symbol.
 
Because relations arise in many scientific disciplines as well as in many branches of [[mathematics]] and [[logic]], there is considerable variation in terminology. This article treats a relation as the [[set theory|set-theoretic]] [[extension (semantics)|extension]] of a relational concept or term. A variant usage reserves the term "relation" to the corresponding logical entity, either the [[comprehension (logic)|logical comprehension]], which is the totality of [[intension]]s or abstract properties that all of the elements of the relation in extension have in common, or else the symbols that are taken to denote these elements and intensions. Further, some writers of the latter persuasion introduce terms with more concrete connotations, like "relational structure", for the set-theoretic extension of a given relational concept.
 
==Transitive relations==
{{main|Transitive relation}}
Transitive relations are binary relations '''R''' on a single set ''X'' where for all a, b, c in ''X'', a'''R'''b and b'''R'''c implies a'''R'''c. Transitive relations fall into two broad classes, [[equivalence relation]]s and [[Order theory|order relations]]. Equivalence relations are also [[symmetric relation|symmetric]] and [[reflexive relation|reflexive]], while order relations are [[antisymmetric relation|antisymmetric]], either [[reflexive relation|reflexive]] (inclusive order) or [[reflexive relation#Related terms|anti-reflexive]] (strict order), and in the case of [[total order]]s, [[Total relation|total]]. The [[algebraic structure]] of equivalence relations builds on [[transformation group]]s; that of order relations builds on [[lattice theory]].
 
== Analogy with functions ==
A binary relation '''R''' on sets ''X'' and ''Y'' may be considered to associate, with each member of ''X'', zero or more members of ''Y''.  (In the case of a relation '''T''' on more than two sets, ''X'' or ''Y'' or both can be cross products of any of the sets on which '''T''' is defined.)  ''X'' is then referred to as the '''domain''' of '''R'''.  ''Y'' is called the '''range''' or '''codomain''' of '''R'''.  The subset of ''Y'' associated with a member x of ''X'', is called the '''image''' of x, written as '''R'''(x).  The subset of ''Y'' associated with a subset ''&xi;'' of ''X'' is the [[union (set theory)|union]] of the '''images''' of all the x in ''&xi;'' and is called the '''image''' of ''&xi;'', written as '''R'''(''&xi;'').
 
'''R''' is '''fully defined''' or '''total''' at ''X'', if for every member x of ''X'', there is at least one member y of ''Y'' where x'''R'''y. '''R''' is '''uniquely defined''' or '''tubular''' at ''X'', if for every member x of ''X'', there is at most one member y of ''Y'' where x'''R'''y. '''R''' is '''surjective''' or '''total''' at ''Y'', if for every member y of ''Y'', there is at least one member x of ''X'' where x'''R'''y. '''R''' is '''injective''' or '''tubular''' at ''Y'', if for every member y of ''Y'', there is at most one member x of ''X'' where x'''R'''y.  If '''R''' is both '''fully defined''' and '''uniquely defined''' then '''R''' is '''well defined''' or '''1-regular''' at ''X'' (for every member x of ''X'', there is one and only one member y of ''Y'' where x'''R'''y).  If '''R''' is both '''surjective''' and '''injective''' then '''R''' is '''bijective''' or '''1-regular''' at ''Y''.  If '''R''' is both '''uniquely defined''' and '''injective''' then '''R''' is '''one-to-one'''.
 
A [[function (mathematics)|function]] is a '''well defined''' relation.  A '''uniquely defined''' relation is a [[partial function]].  A '''surjective''' function is a '''surjection'''.  An '''injective''' function is an '''injection'''.  A '''bijective''' function is a '''bijection'''.
 
Relations generalize [[function (mathematics)|functions]].  Just as there is [[composition of functions]], there is [[composition of relations]].
 
Every binary relation '''R''' has a [[inverse relation|transpose relation]] '''R<sup>−1</sup>''', which is related to the [[inverse function]].  For a relation '''R''' that is both '''fully defined''' and '''injective''', the '''transpose''' relation '''R<sup>−1</sup>''' is a true '''inverse''' in that '''R<sup>−1</sup>''' faithfully restores any element x or subset ''&xi;'':  '''R<sup>−1</sup>'''('''R'''(''&xi;''))&nbsp;=&nbsp;''&xi;''.
 
==Examples==
This section discusses, by way of example, the [[arithmetic]]al [[binary relation]] of [[divisibility]].
 
===Divisibility===
 
A more typical example of a 2-place relation in mathematics is the relation of [[divisor|divisibility]] between two positive integers ''n'' and ''m'' that is expressed in statements like "''n'' divides ''m''" or "''n'' goes into ''m''." This is a relation that comes up so often that a special symbol "|" is reserved to express it, allowing one to write "''n''|''m''" for "''n'' divides ''m''."
 
To express the binary relation of divisibility in terms of sets, we have the set ''P'' of positive integers, ''P'' = {1, 2, 3, …}, and we have the binary relation ''D'' on ''P'' such that the ordered pair (''n'', ''m'') is in the relation ''D'' just in case ''n''|''m''. In other turns of phrase that are frequently used, one says that the number ''n'' is related by ''D'' to the number ''m'' just in case ''n'' is a factor of ''m'', that is, just in case ''n'' divides ''m'' with no remainder. The relation ''D'', regarded as a set of ordered pairs, consists of all pairs of numbers (''n'', ''m'') such that ''n'' divides ''m''.
 
For example, 2 is a factor of 4, and 6 is a factor of 72, which can be written either as 2|4 and 6|72 or as ''D''(2, 4) and ''D''(6, 72).
 
==Suggested reading==
The logician [[Augustus De Morgan]], in work published around 1860, was the first to articulate the notion of relation in anything like its present sense. He also stated the first formal results in the theory of relations (on De Morgan and relations, see Merrill 1990). [[Charles Sanders Peirce]] restated and extended De Morgan's results. [[Bertrand Russell]] (1938; 1st ed. 1903) was historically important, in that it brought together in one place many 19th century results on relations, especially [[order theory|orders]], by Peirce, [[Gottlob Frege]], [[Georg Cantor]], [[Richard Dedekind]], and others. Russell and [[A. N. Whitehead]] made free use of these results in their epochal ''[[Principia Mathematica]]''. For a systematic treatise on the theory of relations see R. Fraïssé, Theory of Relations (North Holland; 2000).
 
== Notes ==
<references/>
 
==See also==
<div style="-moz-column-count:3; column-count:3;">
*[[Correspondence (mathematics)]]
*[[Functional relation]]
*[[Incidence structure]]
*[[Logic of relatives]]
*[[Logical matrix]]
*[[Partial order]]
*[[Projection (set theory)]]
*[[Reflexive relation]]
*[[Relation algebra]]
*[[Relation reduction]]
*[[Sign relation]]
*[[Transitive relation]]
*[[Relational algebra]]
*[[Relational model]]
</div>
 
==References==
{{More footnotes|date=April 2010}}
* [[Charles Sanders Peirce|Peirce, C.S.]] (1870), "Description of a Notation for the Logic of Relatives, Resulting from an Amplification of the Conceptions of Boole's Calculus of Logic", ''Memoirs of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences'' 9, 317–78, 1870. Reprinted, ''Collected Papers'' CP 3.45–149, ''Chronological Edition'' CE 2, 359–429.
 
* [[Stanislaw Ulam|Ulam, S.M.]] and [[Al Bednarek|Bednarek, A.R.]] (1990), "On the Theory of Relational Structures and Schemata for Parallel Computation", pp.&nbsp;477–508 in A.R. Bednarek and Françoise Ulam (eds.), ''Analogies Between Analogies: The Mathematical Reports of S.M. Ulam and His Los Alamos Collaborators'', University of California Press, Berkeley, CA.
 
==Bibliography==
* [[Nicolas Bourbaki|Bourbaki, N.]] (1994) ''Elements of the History of Mathematics'', John Meldrum, trans. Springer-Verlag.
*[[Rudolf Carnap|Carnap, Rudolf]] (1958) ''Introduction to Symbolic Logic with Applications''. Dover Publications.
* [[Paul Richard Halmos|Halmos, P.R.]] (1960) ''Naive Set Theory''. Princeton NJ: D. Van Nostrand Company.
* [[Francis William Lawvere|Lawvere, F.W.]], and R. Rosebrugh (2003) ''Sets for Mathematics'', Cambridge Univ. Press.
*[[John Lucas (philosopher)|Lucas, J. R.]] (1999) ''Conceptual Roots of Mathematics''. Routledge.
* [[Roger Maddux|Maddux, R.D.]] (2006) ''Relation Algebras'', vol.&nbsp;150 in 'Studies in Logic and the Foundations of Mathematics'. Elsevier Science.
*Merrill, Dan D. (1990) ''Augustus De Morgan and the logic of relations''. Kluwer.
* [[Charles Sanders Peirce|Peirce, C.S.]] (1984) ''Writings of Charles S. Peirce: A Chronological Edition, Volume 2, 1867-1871''. Peirce Edition Project, eds. Indiana University Press.
*[[Bertrand Russell|Russell, Bertrand]] (1903/1938) ''[http://fair-use.org/bertrand-russell/the-principles-of-mathematics The Principles of Mathematics, 2nd ed.]'' Cambridge Univ. Press.
*[[Patrick Suppes|Suppes, Patrick]] (1960/1972) ''Axiomatic Set Theory''. Dover Publications.
* [[Alfred Tarski|Tarski, A.]] (1956/1983) ''Logic, Semantics, Metamathematics, Papers from 1923 to 1938'', J.H. Woodger, trans. 1st edition, Oxford University Press. 2nd edition, J. Corcoran, ed. Indianapolis IN: Hackett Publishing.
* [[Stanislaw Ulam|Ulam, S.M.]] (1990) ''Analogies Between Analogies: The Mathematical Reports of S.M. Ulam and His Los Alamos Collaborators'' in A.R. Bednarek and Françoise Ulam, eds., University of California Press.
 
==External links==
* [http://www.apronus.com/provenmath/cartesian.htm Cartesian Product, Relation, Function] @ [http://www.apronus.com/provenmath/ ProvenMath]
 
{{logic}}
 
[[Category:Mathematical logic]]
[[Category:Mathematical relations]]

Revision as of 20:59, 16 February 2014

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