Regular local ring: Difference between revisions

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Examples: The polynomial ring is not local and therefore can't be an example of a regular local ring.
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In [[mathematics]], a '''Hadamard matrix''', named after the French [[mathematician]] [[Jacques Hadamard]], is a [[square matrix]] whose entries are either +1 or &minus;1 and whose rows are mutually [[orthogonal]]. In geometric terms, this means that every two different rows in a Hadamard matrix represent two [[perpendicular]] [[vector space|vector]]s, while in [[combinatorics|combinatorial]] terms, it means that every two different rows have matching entries in exactly half of their columns and mismatched entries in the remaining columns. It is a consequence of this definition that the corresponding properties hold for columns as well as rows. The ''n''-dimensional [[parallelepiped|parallelotope]] spanned by the rows of an ''n''×''n'' Hadamard matrix has the maximum possible ''n''-dimensional [[volume]] among parallelotopes spanned by vectors whose entries are bounded in [[absolute value]] by 1. Equivalently, a Hadamard matrix has maximal [[determinant]] among matrices with entries of absolute value less than or equal to 1 and so, is an extremal solution of [[Hadamard's maximal determinant problem]].
 
Certain Hadamard matrices can almost directly be used as an [[error-correcting code]] using a [[Hadamard code]] (generalized in [[Reed–Muller code]]s), and are also used in [[balanced repeated replication]] (BRR), used by [[statistician]]s to estimate the [[variance]] of a [[parameter]] [[estimator]].
 
==Properties==
Let ''H'' be a Hadamard matrix of order ''n''. The transpose of ''H'' is closely related to its inverse. The correct formula is:
 
:<math> H H^{\mathrm{T}} = n I_n \ </math>
 
where ''I<sub>n</sub>'' is the ''n'' &times; ''n'' [[identity matrix]] and ''H''<sup>T</sup> is the [[transpose]] of ''H''. To see that this is true, notice that the rows of ''H'' are all orthogonal vectors over the field of real numbers and each have length <math>\sqrt n</math>. Dividing ''H'' through by this length gives an [[orthogonal matrix]] whose transpose is thus its inverse. Multiplying by the length again gives the equality above. As a result,
 
:<math> \operatorname{det}(H) = \pm n^{\frac{n}{2}}, </math>
 
where det(''H'') is the [[determinant]] of ''H''.
 
Suppose that ''M'' is a complex matrix of order ''n'', whose entries are bounded by |''M<sub>ij</sub>''| ≤1, for each ''i'', ''j'' between 1 and ''n''. Then [[Hadamard's inequality|Hadamard's determinant bound]] states that
 
:<math> |\operatorname{det}(M)| \leq n^{n/2}. </math>
 
Equality in this bound is attained for a real matrix ''M'' if and only if ''M'' is a Hadamard matrix.
 
The order of a Hadamard matrix must be 1, 2, or a multiple of 4.
 
==Sylvester's construction==
Examples of Hadamard matrices were actually first constructed by [[James Joseph Sylvester]] in 1867. Let ''H'' be a Hadamard matrix of order ''n''. Then the partitioned matrix
:<math>\begin{bmatrix} H & H\\ H & -H\end{bmatrix}</math>
is a Hadamard matrix of order 2''n''. This observation can be applied repeatedly and leads to the following sequence of matrices, also called [[Walsh matrix|Walsh matrices]].
 
:<math>
H_1 = \begin{bmatrix}
1      \end{bmatrix},
</math>
 
:<math>
H_2 = \begin{bmatrix}
1 &  1 \\
1 & -1 \end{bmatrix},
</math>
 
and
 
:<math>
H_{2^k} = \begin{bmatrix}
H_{2^{k-1}} &  H_{2^{k-1}}\\
H_{2^{k-1}}  & -H_{2^{k-1}}\end{bmatrix} = H_2\otimes H_{2^{k-1}},
</math>
 
for <math> 2 \le k \in N </math>, where <math> \left.\otimes\right. </math> denotes the [[Kronecker product]].
 
In this manner, Sylvester constructed Hadamard matrices of order 2<sup>''k''</sup> for every non-negative integer ''k''.<ref>J.J. Sylvester. ''Thoughts on inverse orthogonal matrices, simultaneous sign successions, and tessellated pavements in two or more colours, with applications to Newton's rule, ornamental tile-work, and the theory of numbers.'' [[Philosophical Magazine]], 34:461–475, 1867</ref>
 
Sylvester's matrices have a number of special properties. They are [[Symmetric matrix|symmetric]] and have [[Trace (linear algebra)|trace]] zero. The elements in the first column and the first row are all [[Positive number|positive]]. The elements in all the other rows and columns are evenly divided between [[sign (mathematics)|positive and negative]]. Sylvester matrices are closely connected with [[Walsh function]]s.
 
==Alternative construction==
If we map the elements of the Hadamard matrix using the [[group homomorphism]] <math> \{1,-1,\times\}\mapsto \{0,1,\oplus\} </math>, we can describe an alternative construction of Sylvester's Hadamard matrix. First consider the matrix <math> F_n </math>, the <math> n\times 2^n </math> matrix whose columns consist of all ''n''-bit numbers arranged in ascending counting order. We may define <math> F_n </math> recursively by
 
:<math>
F_1=\begin{bmatrix}
0 & 1\end{bmatrix}
</math>
 
:<math>
F_n=\begin{bmatrix}
0_{1\times 2^{n-1}} & 1_{1\times 2^{n-1}} \\
F_{n-1}            & F_{n-1}            \end{bmatrix}.
</math>
 
It can be shown by induction that the image of the Hadamard matrix under the above homomorphism is given by
 
:<math>
H_{2^n}=F_n^{\rm T}F_n.
</math>
 
This construction demonstrates that the rows of the Hadamard matrix <math> H_{2^n} </math> can be viewed as a length <math> 2^n </math> linear [[Error Correcting Code|error-correcting code]] of [[Linear code#Popular notation|rank]] ''n'', and [[Linear code#Properties|minimum distance]] <math> 2^{n-1} </math> with [[Linear code#Popular notation|generating matrix]] <math> F_n. </math>
 
This code is also referred to as a [[Walsh code]]. The [[Hadamard code]], by contrast, is constructed from the Hadamard matrix <math> H_{2^n} </math> by a slightly different procedure.
 
==Hadamard conjecture==
The most important open question in the theory of Hadamard matrices is that of existence. The '''Hadamard conjecture''' proposes that a Hadamard matrix of order 4''k'' exists for every positive integer ''k''.
 
A generalization of Sylvester's construction proves that if <math>H_n</math> and <math>H_m</math> are Hadamard matrices of orders ''n'' and ''m'' respectively, then <math>\scriptstyle H_n \otimes H_m</math> is a Hadamard matrix of order ''nm''. This result is used to produce Hadamard matrices of higher order once those of smaller orders are known.
 
Sylvester's 1867 construction yields Hadamard matrices of order 1, 2, 4, 8, 16, 32, etc. Hadamard matrices of orders 12 and 20 were subsequently constructed by Hadamard (in 1893).<ref>{{cite journal |first=J. |last=Hadamard |title=Résolution d'une question relative aux déterminants |journal=[[Bulletin des Sciences Mathématiques]] |volume=17 |issue= |pages=240–246 |year=1893 |doi= }}</ref> In 1933, [[Raymond Paley]] discovered a [[Paley construction|construction]] that produces a Hadamard matrix of order ''q''+1 when ''q'' is any [[prime number|prime]] power that is [[Congruence relation|congruent]] to 3 modulo 4 and that produces a Hadamard matrix of order 2(''q''+1) when ''q'' is a prime power that is congruent to 1 modulo 4.<ref>{{cite journal |first=R. E. A. C. |last=Paley |title=On orthogonal matrices |journal=[[Journal of Mathematics and Physics]] |volume=12 |issue= |pages=311–320 |year=1933 |doi= }}</ref> His method uses [[finite field]]s. The Hadamard conjecture should probably be attributed to Paley.
 
The smallest order that cannot be constructed by a combination of Sylvester's and Paley's methods is 92. A Hadamard matrix of this order was found using a computer by [[Leonard Baumert|Baumert]], [[Solomon W. Golomb|Golomb]], and [[Marshall Hall (mathematician)|Hall]] in 1962 at [[JPL]].<ref>{{cite journal |first=L. |last=Baumert |first2=S. W. |last2=Golomb |first3=M., Jr. |last3=Hall |title=Discovery of an Hadamard Matrix of Order 92 |journal=[[Bulletin of the American Mathematical Society]] |volume=68 |issue=3 |pages=237–238 |year=1962 |doi=10.1090/S0002-9904-1962-10761-7 |mr=0148686 }}</ref> They used a construction, due to [[John Williamson (mathematician)|Williamson]],<ref>{{cite journal |first=J. |last=Williamson |title=Hadamard’s determinant theorem and the sum of four squares |journal=[[Duke Mathematical Journal]] |volume=11 |issue=1 |pages=65–81 |year=1944 |doi=10.1215/S0012-7094-44-01108-7 |mr=0009590 }}</ref> that has yielded many additional orders. Many other methods for constructing Hadamard matrices are now known.
 
In 2005, Hadi Kharaghani and Behruz Tayfeh-Rezaie published their construction of a Hadamard matrix of order 428.<ref>{{cite journal |first=H. |last=Kharaghani |first2=B. |last2=Tayfeh-Rezaie |title=A Hadamard matrix of order 428 |journal=Journal of Combinatorial Designs |volume=13 |year=2005 |issue=6 |pages=435–440 |doi=10.1002/jcd.20043 }}</ref> As a result, the smallest order for which no Hadamard matrix is presently known is 668. <!-- Anon contributor: please go to the article's talk page and discuss your objection to this claim; properly sourced material cannot be removed from Wikipedia without a good reason. -->
 
{{As of|2008}}, there are 13 multiples of 4 less than or equal to 2000 for which no Hadamard matrix of that order is known.<ref name="dokovic">{{Cite journal| doi=10.1007/s00493-008-2384-z| last=Đoković| first=Dragomir Ž| title=Hadamard matrices of order 764 exist| journal=Combinatorica| year=2008| volume=28| issue=4|pages=487–489}}</ref> They are:
668, 716, 892, 1004, 1132, 1244, 1388, 1436, 1676, 1772, 1916, 1948, and 1964.
 
==Equivalence of Hadamard matrices==
Two Hadamard matrices are considered [[equivalence relation|equivalent]] if one can be obtained from the other by negating rows or columns, or by interchanging rows or columns. Up to equivalence, there is a unique Hadamard matrix of orders 1, 2, 4, 8, and 12. There are 5 inequivalent matrices of order 16, 3 of order 20, 60 of order 24, and 487 of order 28. Millions of inequivalent matrices are known for orders 32, 36, and 40. Using a [[equivalence relation#Comparing equivalence relations|coarser]] notion of equivalence that also allows [[transpose|transposition]], there are 4 inequivalent matrices of order 16, 3 of order 20, 36 of order 24, and 294 of order 28.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Wanless|first=I.M.|title=Permanents of matrices of signed ones|journal=Linear and Multilinear Algebra |year=2005 |volume=53 |pages=427–433 |doi=10.1080/03081080500093990}}</ref>
 
==Skew Hadamard matrices==
A Hadamard matrix ''H'' is ''skew'' if <math>H^{\rm T} + H= 2I. \, </math>
 
Reid and Brown in 1972 showed that there exists a "doubly regular [[tournament (graph theory)|tournament]] of order ''n''" if and only if there exists a skew Hadamard matrix of order ''n'' + 1.
 
==Generalizations and special cases==
Many generalizations and special cases of Hadamard matrices have been investigated in the mathematical literature. One basic generalization is the [[weighing matrix]], a square matrix in which entries may also be zero and which satisfies <math>WW^{T}=wI</math> for some w, its weight. A weighing matrix with its weight equal to its order is a Hadamard matrix.
 
Another generalization defines a [[complex Hadamard matrix]] to be a matrix in which the entries are complex numbers of unit [[absolute value|modulus]] and which satisfies ''H H<sup>*</sup>= n I<sub>n</sub>'' where ''H<sup>*</sup>'' is the [[conjugate transpose]] of ''H''. Complex Hadamard matrices arise in the study of [[operator algebras]] and the theory of [[quantum computation]].
[[Butson-type Hadamard matrices]] are complex Hadamard matrices in which the entries are taken to be ''q''<sup>th</sup> [[roots of unity]]. The term "complex Hadamard matrix" has been used by some authors to refer specifically to the case ''q'' = 4.
 
[[Regular Hadamard matrices]] are real Hadamard matrices whose row and column sums are all equal. A necessary condition on the existence of a regular ''n''×''n'' Hadamard matrix is that ''n'' be a perfect square. A [[circulant]] matrix is manifestly regular, and therefore a circulant Hadamard matrix would have to be of perfect square order. Moreover, if an ''n''×''n'' circulant Hadamard
matrix existed with ''n'' > 1 then ''n'' would necessarily have to be of the form 4''u''<sup>2</sup> with ''u'' odd.<ref>{{cite journal |first=R. J. |last=Turyn |title=Character sums and difference sets |journal=[[Pacific Journal of Mathematics]] |volume=15 |issue=1 |pages=319–346 |year=1965 |mr=0179098 }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |first=R. J. |last=Turyn |chapter=Sequences with small correlation |editor-first=H. B. |editor-last=Mann |title=Error Correcting Codes |publisher=Wiley |location=New York |year=1969 |pages=195–228 }}</ref>
 
The circulant Hadamard matrix conjecture, however, asserts that, apart from the known 1×1 and 4×4 examples, no such matrices exist. This was verified for all but 26 values of ''u'' less than 10<sup>4</sup>.<ref>{{cite journal |first=B. |last=Schmidt |title=Cyclotomic integers and finite geometry |journal=[[Journal of the American Mathematical Society]] |volume=12 |issue=4 |pages=929–952 |year=1999 |doi=10.1090/S0894-0347-99-00298-2  |jstor=2646093 }}</ref>
 
==Practical applications==
*[[Olivia MFSK]] – an amateur-radio digital protocol designed to work in difficult (low signal-to-noise ratio plus multipath propagation) conditions on shortwave bands.
*[[balanced repeated replication|Balanced Repeated Replication]] (BRR) – a technique used by statisticians to estimate the [[variance]] of a [[statistical estimator]].
*[[Coded aperture]] spectrometry – an instrument for measuring the spectrum of light. The mask element used in coded aperture spectrometers is often a variant of a Hadamard matrix.
*Feedback Delay Networks – Digital reverberation devices which use Hadamard matrices to blend sample values
*[[Plackett–Burman design]] of experiments for investigating the dependence of some measured quantity on a number of independent variables.
*[[Robust Parameter Design (RPD)|Robust parameter designs]] for investigating noise factor impacts on responses
 
==See also==
*[[Hadamard transform]]
*[[Combinatorial design]]
*[[Quincunx matrix]]
 
==Notes==
{{reflist|2}}
 
==Further reading==
*{{cite book |first=S. |last=Georgiou |first2=C. |last2=Koukouvinos |first3=J. |last3=Seberry |chapter=Hadamard matrices, orthogonal designs and construction algorithms |pages=133–205 |title=Designs 2002: Further computational and constructive design theory |location=Boston |publisher=Kluwer |year=2003 |isbn=1-4020-7599-5 }}
*{{cite journal |first=K. B. |last=Reid |first2=E. |last2=Brown |title=Doubly regular tournaments are equivalent to skew Hadamard matrices |journal=J. Combin. Theory Ser. A |volume=12 |year=1972 |issue=3 |pages=332–338 |doi=10.1016/0097-3165(72)90098-2 }}
*{{cite journal |first=J. |last=Seberry |first2=B. |last2=Wysocki |first3=T. |last3=Wysocki |title=On some applications of Hadamard matrices |journal=Metrika |volume=62 |year=2005 |issue=2–3 |pages=221–239 |doi=10.1007/s00184-005-0415-y }}
*{{cite book |first=R. K. |last=Yarlagadda |first2=J. E. |last2=Hershey |title=Hadamard Matrix Analysis and Synthesis |year=1997 |location=Boston |publisher=Kluwer |isbn=0-7923-9826-2 }}
 
==External links==
*[http://rangevoting.org/SkewHad.html Skew Hadamard matrices] of all orders up to 100, including every type with order up to 28;
* {{cite web | author=[[N. J. A. Sloane]]
|url=http://neilsloane.com/hadamard
|title=Library of Hadamard Matrices}}
*[http://www.iasri.res.in/webhadamard On-line utility] to obtain all orders up to 1000, except 668, 716, 876 & 892.
* {{cite journal|doi=10.1214/aoms/1177730883 |first1=Alexander M.
|last1=Mood
|journal=Annals of Mathematical Statistics
|year=1964
|volume=17 |number=4 | title=On Hotelling's Weighing Problem
|pages=432–446}}
 
*{{cite journal|first1=L. D. | last1=Baumert | first2=Marshall | last2=Hall
|title=Hadamard matrices of the Williamson type
|journal=Math. Comp. | year=1965 | volume=19 | number=91 | pages=442–447
|doi=10.1090/S0025-5718-1965-0179093-2  |mr=0179093}}
*{{cite journal | first1=J. M. |last1=Goethals | first2=J. J. | last2=Seidel
|title=A skew Hadamard matrix of order 36 | journal=J. Austral. math. Soc.
|year=1970 | volume=11 | number=3 | pages=343–344
|doi=10.1017/S144678870000673X }}
*{{cite journal| first1=Jennifer | last1=Seberry Wallis
|title=On the existence of Hadamard matrices
|year=1976 | journal=J. Combinat. Theory A | volume=21 | number=2 | doi=10.1016/0097-3165(76)90062-5
|pages=188–195}}
*{{cite journal|first1=Jennifer | last1=Seberry
|title=A construction for generalized hadamard matrices
|year=1980 | journal=J. Statist. Plann. Infer. | volume=4 | number=4 | doi=10.1016/0378-3758(80)90021-X
|pages=365–368}}
*{{cite journal|first1=Hiroshi | last1=Kimura
|title=New Hadamard matrix of order 24
|journal=Graphs and Combinatorics | year=1989 | volume=5 |
pages=235–242 | number=1|doi=10.1007/BF01788676}}
* {{cite journal| first1=Edward | last1=Spence
|title=Classification of hadamard matrices of order 24 and 28
|journal=Discr. Math.
|year=1995 | volume=140 | number=1-3 | pages=185–242 | doi=10.1016/0012-365X(93)E0169-5
}}
*{{ cite journal | first1=H. |last1=Kharaghani
|first2=B. | last2=Tayfeh-Rezaie
|title=A Hadamard matrix of order 428
|journal= J. Combin. Des.
|year=2005 | volume= 13 | pages=435–440 | number=6
|url=http://math.ipm.ac.ir/tayfeh-r/papersandpreprints/h428.pdf
|doi=10.1002/jcd.20043}}
* {{cite web | url = http://oeis.org/search?q=Hadamard+Matrix | title=Hadamard Matrix}} in [[OEIS]]
 
{{DEFAULTSORT:Hadamard Matrix}}
[[Category:Design theory]]
[[Category:Matrices]]
[[Category:Unsolved problems in mathematics]]

Revision as of 07:23, 3 March 2014

Hi there! :) My name is Stevie, I'm a student studying Modern Languages and Classics from Naringal, Australia.

My homepage ... Fifa 15 Coin Generator (http://Hongbo.me/?Document_srl=43594)