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The '''axiom of determinacy''' (abbreviated as '''AD''') is a possible [[axiom]] for [[set theory]] introduced by [[Jan Mycielski]] and [[Hugo Steinhaus]] in 1962. It refers to certain two-person [[Determinacy#Basic notions|game]]s of length [[ordinal number|ω]] with [[perfect information]]. AD states that every such game in which both players choose [[natural number]]s is determined; that is, one of the two players has a [[Determinacy#Winning strategies|winning]] [[Determinacy#Strategies|strategy]]. | |||
The axiom of determinacy is inconsistent with the [[axiom of choice]] (AC); the axiom of determinacy implies that all subsets of the [[real number]]s are [[Lebesgue measurable]], have the [[property of Baire]], and the [[perfect set property]]. The last implies a weak form of the [[continuum hypothesis]] (namely, that every [[Countable set|uncountable]] set of reals has the same [[cardinality]] as the full set of reals). | |||
Furthermore, AD implies the consistency of [[Zermelo–Fraenkel set theory]] (ZF). Hence, as a consequence of the [[Gödel's incompleteness theorems|incompleteness theorems]], it is not possible to prove the [[relative consistency]] of ZF + AD with respect to ZF. | |||
==Types of game that are determined== | |||
Not all games require the axiom of determinacy to prove them determined. Games whose [[winning set]]s are closed are determined. These correspond to many naturally defined infinite games. It was shown in 1975 by [[Donald A. Martin]] that games whose winning set is a [[Borel set]] are determined. It follows from the existence of sufficient [[large cardinal]]s that all games with winning set a [[projective set]] are determined (see [[Projective determinacy]]), and that AD holds in [[L(R)]]. | |||
== Incompatibility of the axiom of determinacy with the axiom of choice == | |||
The set S1 of all first player strategies in an ω-game ''G'' has the same [[cardinality]] as the [[cardinality of the continuum|continuum]]. The same is true of the set S2 of all second player strategies. We note that the cardinality of the set SG of all sequences possible in ''G'' is also the continuum. Let A be the subset of SG of all sequences which make the first player win. With the axiom of choice we can [[well order]] the continuum; furthermore, we can do so in such a way that any proper initial portion does not have the cardinality of the continuum. We create a counterexample by [[transfinite induction]] on the set of strategies under this well ordering: | |||
We start with the set A undefined. Let T be the "time" whose axis has length continuum. We need to consider all strategies {s1(T)} of the first player and all strategies {s2(T)} of the second player to make sure that for every strategy there is a strategy of the other player that wins against it. For every strategy of the player considered we will generate a sequence which gives the other player a win. Let t be the time whose axis has length ℵ<sub>0</sub> and which is used during each game sequence. | |||
# Consider the current strategy {s1(T)} of the first player. | |||
#Go through the entire game, generating (together with the first player's strategy s1(T)) a sequence {a(1), b(2), a(3), b(4),...,a(t), b(t+1),...}. | |||
#Decide that this sequence does not belong to A, i.e. s1(T) lost. | |||
#Consider the strategy {s2(T)} of the second player. | |||
#Go through the next entire game, generating (together with the second player's strategy s2(T)) a sequence {c(1), d(2), c(3), d(4),...,c(t), d(t+1),...}, making sure that this sequence is different from {a(1), b(2), a(3), b(4),...,a(t), b(t+1),...}. | |||
#Decide that this sequence belongs to A, i.e. s2(T) lost. | |||
#Keep repeating with further strategies if there are any, making sure that sequences already considered do not become generated again. (We start from the set of all sequences and each time we generate a sequence and refute a strategy we project the generated sequence onto first player moves and onto second player moves, and we take away the two resulting sequences from our set of sequences.) | |||
#For all sequences that did not come up in the above consideration arbitrarily decide whether they belong to A, or to the complement of A. | |||
Once this has been done we have a game ''G''. If you give me a strategy s1 then we considered that strategy at some time T = T(s1). At time ''T'', we decided an outcome of s1 that would be a loss of s1. Hence this strategy fails. But this is true for an arbitrary strategy; hence the axiom of determinacy and the axiom of choice are incompatible. | |||
== Infinite logic and the axiom of determinacy == | |||
Many different versions of [[infinitary logic]] were proposed in the late 20th century. One reason that has been given for believing in the axiom of determinacy is that it can be written as follows (in a version of infinite logic): | |||
<math>\forall G \subseteq Seq(S):</math> | |||
<math>\forall a \in S :\exists a' \in S :\forall b \in S :\exists b' \in S :\forall c \in S :\exists c' \in S ... : (a,a',b,b',c,c'...) \in G </math> OR | |||
<math>\exists a \in S :\forall a' \in S :\exists b \in S :\forall b' \in S :\exists c \in S :\forall c' \in S ... :(a,a',b,b',c,c'...) \notin G </math> | |||
Note: Seq(''S'') is the set of all <math>\omega</math>-sequences of ''S''. The sentences here are infinitely long with a countably infinite list of [[quantifiers]] where the ellipses appear. | |||
In an infinitary logic, this principle is therefore a natural generalization of the usual (de Morgan) rule for quantifiers that | |||
are true for finite formulas, such as <math>\forall a:\exists b : \forall c: \exists d : R(a,b,c,d) </math> OR <math> \exists a: \forall b: | |||
\exists c: \forall d: \lnot R(a,b,c,d)</math>. | |||
== Large cardinals and the axiom of determinacy == | |||
The consistency of the axiom of determinacy is closely related to the question of the consistency of [[large cardinal]] axioms. By a theorem of [[W. Hugh Woodin|Woodin]], the consistency of Zermelo–Fraenkel set theory without choice (ZF) together with the axiom of determinacy is equivalent to the consistency of Zermelo–Fraenkel set theory with choice (ZFC) together with the existence of infinitely many [[Woodin cardinal]]s. Since Woodin cardinals are [[inaccessible cardinal|strongly inaccessible]], if AD is consistent, then so are an infinity of inaccessible cardinals. | |||
Moreover, if to the hypothesis of an infinite set of Woodin cardinals is added the existence of a [[measurable cardinal]] larger than all of them, a very strong theory of [[Lebesgue measurable]] sets of reals emerges, as it is then provable that the axiom of determinacy is true in [[L(R)]], and therefore that ''every'' set of real numbers in L(R) is determined. | |||
== See also == | |||
* [[Axiom of real determinacy]] (AD<sub>R</sub>) | |||
* [[AD+|AD<sup>+</sup>]], a variant of the axiom of determinacy formulated by [[William Hugh Woodin|Woodin]] | |||
* [[Axiom of quasi-determinacy]] (ADQ) | |||
==References== | |||
* {{cite book|author=Jech, Thomas|title=Set theory, third millennium edition (revised and expanded)|publisher=Springer|year=2002|isbn=3-540-44085-2}} | |||
* {{cite book|author=Kanamori, Akihiro|authorlink=Akihiro Kanamori|title=The Higher Infinite, second edition|publisher=Springer|year=2000|isbn=3-540-00384-3}} | |||
* {{cite journal|author=Martin, Donald A. and John R. Steel|year=Jan., 1989|title=A Proof of Projective Determinacy|journal=Journal of the American Mathematical Society|volume=2|issue=1|pages=71–125|doi=10.2307/1990913|publisher=American Mathematical Society|jstor=1990913}} | |||
* {{cite book | author=Moschovakis, Yiannis N. | title=Descriptive Set Theory | publisher=North Holland | year=1980 |isbn=0-444-70199-0}} | |||
*{{Cite journal | last1=Mycielski | first1=Jan | last2=Steinhaus | first2=H. | title=A mathematical axiom contradicting the axiom of choice | mr=0140430 | year=1962 | journal=Bulletin de l'Académie Polonaise des Sciences. Série des Sciences Mathématiques, Astronomiques et Physiques | issn=0001-4117 | volume=10 | pages=1–3 | postscript=<!--None-->}} | |||
* {{cite journal|author=Woodin, W. Hugh|journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America|year=1988|title=Supercompact cardinals, sets of reals, and weakly homogeneous trees|volume=85|issue=18|pages=6587–6591|doi=10.1073/pnas.85.18.6587|pmid=16593979|pmc=282022}} | |||
== Further reading == | |||
* Philipp Rohde, ''On Extensions of the Axiom of Determinacy'', Thesis, Department of Mathematics, University of Bonn, Germany, 2001 | |||
* [[Rastislav J. Telgársky|Telgársky, R.J.]] ''Topological Games: On the 50th Anniversary of the Banach-Mazur Game'', Rocky Mountain J. Math. '''17''' (1987), pp. 227–276.[http://telgarska.com/1987-RMJM-Telgarsky-Topological-Games.pdf] (3.19 MB) | |||
[[Category:Axioms of set theory]] | |||
[[Category:Determinacy]] | |||
[[Category:Large cardinals]] | |||
Revision as of 07:51, 20 January 2014
The axiom of determinacy (abbreviated as AD) is a possible axiom for set theory introduced by Jan Mycielski and Hugo Steinhaus in 1962. It refers to certain two-person games of length ω with perfect information. AD states that every such game in which both players choose natural numbers is determined; that is, one of the two players has a winning strategy.
The axiom of determinacy is inconsistent with the axiom of choice (AC); the axiom of determinacy implies that all subsets of the real numbers are Lebesgue measurable, have the property of Baire, and the perfect set property. The last implies a weak form of the continuum hypothesis (namely, that every uncountable set of reals has the same cardinality as the full set of reals).
Furthermore, AD implies the consistency of Zermelo–Fraenkel set theory (ZF). Hence, as a consequence of the incompleteness theorems, it is not possible to prove the relative consistency of ZF + AD with respect to ZF.
Types of game that are determined
Not all games require the axiom of determinacy to prove them determined. Games whose winning sets are closed are determined. These correspond to many naturally defined infinite games. It was shown in 1975 by Donald A. Martin that games whose winning set is a Borel set are determined. It follows from the existence of sufficient large cardinals that all games with winning set a projective set are determined (see Projective determinacy), and that AD holds in L(R).
Incompatibility of the axiom of determinacy with the axiom of choice
The set S1 of all first player strategies in an ω-game G has the same cardinality as the continuum. The same is true of the set S2 of all second player strategies. We note that the cardinality of the set SG of all sequences possible in G is also the continuum. Let A be the subset of SG of all sequences which make the first player win. With the axiom of choice we can well order the continuum; furthermore, we can do so in such a way that any proper initial portion does not have the cardinality of the continuum. We create a counterexample by transfinite induction on the set of strategies under this well ordering:
We start with the set A undefined. Let T be the "time" whose axis has length continuum. We need to consider all strategies {s1(T)} of the first player and all strategies {s2(T)} of the second player to make sure that for every strategy there is a strategy of the other player that wins against it. For every strategy of the player considered we will generate a sequence which gives the other player a win. Let t be the time whose axis has length ℵ0 and which is used during each game sequence.
- Consider the current strategy {s1(T)} of the first player.
- Go through the entire game, generating (together with the first player's strategy s1(T)) a sequence {a(1), b(2), a(3), b(4),...,a(t), b(t+1),...}.
- Decide that this sequence does not belong to A, i.e. s1(T) lost.
- Consider the strategy {s2(T)} of the second player.
- Go through the next entire game, generating (together with the second player's strategy s2(T)) a sequence {c(1), d(2), c(3), d(4),...,c(t), d(t+1),...}, making sure that this sequence is different from {a(1), b(2), a(3), b(4),...,a(t), b(t+1),...}.
- Decide that this sequence belongs to A, i.e. s2(T) lost.
- Keep repeating with further strategies if there are any, making sure that sequences already considered do not become generated again. (We start from the set of all sequences and each time we generate a sequence and refute a strategy we project the generated sequence onto first player moves and onto second player moves, and we take away the two resulting sequences from our set of sequences.)
- For all sequences that did not come up in the above consideration arbitrarily decide whether they belong to A, or to the complement of A.
Once this has been done we have a game G. If you give me a strategy s1 then we considered that strategy at some time T = T(s1). At time T, we decided an outcome of s1 that would be a loss of s1. Hence this strategy fails. But this is true for an arbitrary strategy; hence the axiom of determinacy and the axiom of choice are incompatible.
Infinite logic and the axiom of determinacy
Many different versions of infinitary logic were proposed in the late 20th century. One reason that has been given for believing in the axiom of determinacy is that it can be written as follows (in a version of infinite logic):
Note: Seq(S) is the set of all -sequences of S. The sentences here are infinitely long with a countably infinite list of quantifiers where the ellipses appear.
In an infinitary logic, this principle is therefore a natural generalization of the usual (de Morgan) rule for quantifiers that are true for finite formulas, such as OR .
Large cardinals and the axiom of determinacy
The consistency of the axiom of determinacy is closely related to the question of the consistency of large cardinal axioms. By a theorem of Woodin, the consistency of Zermelo–Fraenkel set theory without choice (ZF) together with the axiom of determinacy is equivalent to the consistency of Zermelo–Fraenkel set theory with choice (ZFC) together with the existence of infinitely many Woodin cardinals. Since Woodin cardinals are strongly inaccessible, if AD is consistent, then so are an infinity of inaccessible cardinals.
Moreover, if to the hypothesis of an infinite set of Woodin cardinals is added the existence of a measurable cardinal larger than all of them, a very strong theory of Lebesgue measurable sets of reals emerges, as it is then provable that the axiom of determinacy is true in L(R), and therefore that every set of real numbers in L(R) is determined.
See also
- Axiom of real determinacy (ADR)
- AD+, a variant of the axiom of determinacy formulated by Woodin
- Axiom of quasi-determinacy (ADQ)
References
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Extending the tax exemption would help. The exemption, which may be as a lot as $2 million per family, covers individuals who negotiate a principal reduction on their existing mortgage, sell their house short (i.e., for lower than the excellent loans), or take part in a foreclosure course of. An extension of theexemption would seem like a common-sense means to assist stabilize the housing market, but the political turmoil around the fiscal-cliff negotiations means widespread sense could not win out. Home Minority Chief Nancy Pelosi (D-Calif.) believes that the mortgage relief provision will be on the table during the grand-cut price talks, in response to communications director Nadeam Elshami. Buying or promoting of blue mild bulbs is unlawful.
A vendor's stamp duty has been launched on industrial property for the primary time, at rates ranging from 5 per cent to 15 per cent. The Authorities might be trying to reassure the market that they aren't in opposition to foreigners and PRs investing in Singapore's property market. They imposed these measures because of extenuating components available in the market." The sale of new dual-key EC models will even be restricted to multi-generational households only. The models have two separate entrances, permitting grandparents, for example, to dwell separately. The vendor's stamp obligation takes effect right this moment and applies to industrial property and plots which might be offered inside three years of the date of buy. JLL named Best Performing Property Brand for second year running
The data offered is for normal info purposes only and isn't supposed to be personalised investment or monetary advice. Motley Fool Singapore contributor Stanley Lim would not personal shares in any corporations talked about. Singapore private home costs increased by 1.eight% within the fourth quarter of 2012, up from 0.6% within the earlier quarter. Resale prices of government-built HDB residences which are usually bought by Singaporeans, elevated by 2.5%, quarter on quarter, the quickest acquire in five quarters. And industrial property, prices are actually double the levels of three years ago. No withholding tax in the event you sell your property. All your local information regarding vital HDB policies, condominium launches, land growth, commercial property and more
There are various methods to go about discovering the precise property. Some local newspapers (together with the Straits Instances ) have categorised property sections and many local property brokers have websites. Now there are some specifics to consider when buying a 'new launch' rental. Intended use of the unit Every sale begins with 10 p.c low cost for finish of season sale; changes to 20 % discount storewide; follows by additional reduction of fiftyand ends with last discount of 70 % or extra. Typically there is even a warehouse sale or transferring out sale with huge mark-down of costs for stock clearance. Deborah Regulation from Expat Realtor shares her property market update, plus prime rental residences and houses at the moment available to lease Esparina EC @ Sengkang - 20 year-old Real Estate Agent Rusty from Saint-Paul, has hobbies and interests which includes monopoly, property developers in singapore and poker. Will soon undertake a contiki trip that may include going to the Lower Valley of the Omo.
My blog: http://www.primaboinca.com/view_profile.php?userid=5889534 - One of the biggest reasons investing in a Singapore new launch is an effective things is as a result of it is doable to be lent massive quantities of money at very low interest rates that you should utilize to purchase it. Then, if property values continue to go up, then you'll get a really high return on funding (ROI). Simply make sure you purchase one of the higher properties, reminiscent of the ones at Fernvale the Riverbank or any Singapore landed property Get Earnings by means of Renting
In its statement, the singapore property listing - website link, government claimed that the majority citizens buying their first residence won't be hurt by the new measures. Some concessions can even be prolonged to chose teams of consumers, similar to married couples with a minimum of one Singaporean partner who are purchasing their second property so long as they intend to promote their first residential property. Lower the LTV limit on housing loans granted by monetary establishments regulated by MAS from 70% to 60% for property purchasers who are individuals with a number of outstanding housing loans on the time of the brand new housing purchase. Singapore Property Measures - 30 August 2010 The most popular seek for the number of bedrooms in Singapore is 4, followed by 2 and three. Lush Acres EC @ Sengkang
Discover out more about real estate funding in the area, together with info on international funding incentives and property possession. Many Singaporeans have been investing in property across the causeway in recent years, attracted by comparatively low prices. However, those who need to exit their investments quickly are likely to face significant challenges when trying to sell their property – and could finally be stuck with a property they can't sell. Career improvement programmes, in-house valuation, auctions and administrative help, venture advertising and marketing, skilled talks and traisning are continuously planned for the sales associates to help them obtain better outcomes for his or her shoppers while at Knight Frank Singapore. No change Present Rules
Extending the tax exemption would help. The exemption, which may be as a lot as $2 million per family, covers individuals who negotiate a principal reduction on their existing mortgage, sell their house short (i.e., for lower than the excellent loans), or take part in a foreclosure course of. An extension of theexemption would seem like a common-sense means to assist stabilize the housing market, but the political turmoil around the fiscal-cliff negotiations means widespread sense could not win out. Home Minority Chief Nancy Pelosi (D-Calif.) believes that the mortgage relief provision will be on the table during the grand-cut price talks, in response to communications director Nadeam Elshami. Buying or promoting of blue mild bulbs is unlawful.
A vendor's stamp duty has been launched on industrial property for the primary time, at rates ranging from 5 per cent to 15 per cent. The Authorities might be trying to reassure the market that they aren't in opposition to foreigners and PRs investing in Singapore's property market. They imposed these measures because of extenuating components available in the market." The sale of new dual-key EC models will even be restricted to multi-generational households only. The models have two separate entrances, permitting grandparents, for example, to dwell separately. The vendor's stamp obligation takes effect right this moment and applies to industrial property and plots which might be offered inside three years of the date of buy. JLL named Best Performing Property Brand for second year running
The data offered is for normal info purposes only and isn't supposed to be personalised investment or monetary advice. Motley Fool Singapore contributor Stanley Lim would not personal shares in any corporations talked about. Singapore private home costs increased by 1.eight% within the fourth quarter of 2012, up from 0.6% within the earlier quarter. Resale prices of government-built HDB residences which are usually bought by Singaporeans, elevated by 2.5%, quarter on quarter, the quickest acquire in five quarters. And industrial property, prices are actually double the levels of three years ago. No withholding tax in the event you sell your property. All your local information regarding vital HDB policies, condominium launches, land growth, commercial property and more
There are various methods to go about discovering the precise property. Some local newspapers (together with the Straits Instances ) have categorised property sections and many local property brokers have websites. Now there are some specifics to consider when buying a 'new launch' rental. Intended use of the unit Every sale begins with 10 p.c low cost for finish of season sale; changes to 20 % discount storewide; follows by additional reduction of fiftyand ends with last discount of 70 % or extra. Typically there is even a warehouse sale or transferring out sale with huge mark-down of costs for stock clearance. Deborah Regulation from Expat Realtor shares her property market update, plus prime rental residences and houses at the moment available to lease Esparina EC @ Sengkang - One of the biggest reasons investing in a Singapore new launch is an effective things is as a result of it is doable to be lent massive quantities of money at very low interest rates that you should utilize to purchase it. Then, if property values continue to go up, then you'll get a really high return on funding (ROI). Simply make sure you purchase one of the higher properties, reminiscent of the ones at Fernvale the Riverbank or any Singapore landed property Get Earnings by means of Renting
In its statement, the singapore property listing - website link, government claimed that the majority citizens buying their first residence won't be hurt by the new measures. Some concessions can even be prolonged to chose teams of consumers, similar to married couples with a minimum of one Singaporean partner who are purchasing their second property so long as they intend to promote their first residential property. Lower the LTV limit on housing loans granted by monetary establishments regulated by MAS from 70% to 60% for property purchasers who are individuals with a number of outstanding housing loans on the time of the brand new housing purchase. Singapore Property Measures - 30 August 2010 The most popular seek for the number of bedrooms in Singapore is 4, followed by 2 and three. Lush Acres EC @ Sengkang
Discover out more about real estate funding in the area, together with info on international funding incentives and property possession. Many Singaporeans have been investing in property across the causeway in recent years, attracted by comparatively low prices. However, those who need to exit their investments quickly are likely to face significant challenges when trying to sell their property – and could finally be stuck with a property they can't sell. Career improvement programmes, in-house valuation, auctions and administrative help, venture advertising and marketing, skilled talks and traisning are continuously planned for the sales associates to help them obtain better outcomes for his or her shoppers while at Knight Frank Singapore. No change Present Rules
Extending the tax exemption would help. The exemption, which may be as a lot as $2 million per family, covers individuals who negotiate a principal reduction on their existing mortgage, sell their house short (i.e., for lower than the excellent loans), or take part in a foreclosure course of. An extension of theexemption would seem like a common-sense means to assist stabilize the housing market, but the political turmoil around the fiscal-cliff negotiations means widespread sense could not win out. Home Minority Chief Nancy Pelosi (D-Calif.) believes that the mortgage relief provision will be on the table during the grand-cut price talks, in response to communications director Nadeam Elshami. Buying or promoting of blue mild bulbs is unlawful.
A vendor's stamp duty has been launched on industrial property for the primary time, at rates ranging from 5 per cent to 15 per cent. The Authorities might be trying to reassure the market that they aren't in opposition to foreigners and PRs investing in Singapore's property market. They imposed these measures because of extenuating components available in the market." The sale of new dual-key EC models will even be restricted to multi-generational households only. The models have two separate entrances, permitting grandparents, for example, to dwell separately. The vendor's stamp obligation takes effect right this moment and applies to industrial property and plots which might be offered inside three years of the date of buy. JLL named Best Performing Property Brand for second year running
The data offered is for normal info purposes only and isn't supposed to be personalised investment or monetary advice. Motley Fool Singapore contributor Stanley Lim would not personal shares in any corporations talked about. Singapore private home costs increased by 1.eight% within the fourth quarter of 2012, up from 0.6% within the earlier quarter. Resale prices of government-built HDB residences which are usually bought by Singaporeans, elevated by 2.5%, quarter on quarter, the quickest acquire in five quarters. And industrial property, prices are actually double the levels of three years ago. No withholding tax in the event you sell your property. All your local information regarding vital HDB policies, condominium launches, land growth, commercial property and more
There are various methods to go about discovering the precise property. Some local newspapers (together with the Straits Instances ) have categorised property sections and many local property brokers have websites. Now there are some specifics to consider when buying a 'new launch' rental. Intended use of the unit Every sale begins with 10 p.c low cost for finish of season sale; changes to 20 % discount storewide; follows by additional reduction of fiftyand ends with last discount of 70 % or extra. Typically there is even a warehouse sale or transferring out sale with huge mark-down of costs for stock clearance. Deborah Regulation from Expat Realtor shares her property market update, plus prime rental residences and houses at the moment available to lease Esparina EC @ Sengkang
Further reading
- Philipp Rohde, On Extensions of the Axiom of Determinacy, Thesis, Department of Mathematics, University of Bonn, Germany, 2001
- Telgársky, R.J. Topological Games: On the 50th Anniversary of the Banach-Mazur Game, Rocky Mountain J. Math. 17 (1987), pp. 227–276.[1] (3.19 MB)