Bruun's FFT algorithm: Difference between revisions

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{{for|disk drives|Data transfer rate (disk drive)}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=August 2012}}
{{bitrates}}
In [[telecommunications]] and [[computing]], '''bit rate''' (sometimes written '''bitrate''' or as a variable ''R''<ref>{{cite book |url = http://books.google.com/books?id=-kNn_p6WA38C&pg=PA21&dq=bit+%22rate+R%22#v=onepage&q=bit%20%22rate%20R%22&f=false |title=Data Communications and Computer Networks | first =Prakash C | last = Gupta |publisher=PHI Learning |year= 2006 |accessdate=2011-07-10}}</ref>) is the number of [[bit]]s that are conveyed or processed per unit of time.


The bit rate is [[:wiktionary:quantified|quantified]] using the [[Data rate units|bits per second]] ('''bit/s''' or '''bps''') unit, often in conjunction with an [[SI prefix]] such as [[kilo-]] (kbit/s or kbps), [[mega-]] (Mbit/s or Mbps), [[giga-]] (Gbit/s or Gbps) or [[tera-]] (Tbit/s or Tbps). Note that, unlike many other computer-related units, 1&nbsp;kbit/s is traditionally defined as 1,000&nbsp;bit/s, not 1,024&nbsp;bit/s, etc., also before 1999 when SI prefixes were introduced for units of information in the standard [[IEC 60027-2]].<ref>{{cite web | author= International Electrotechnical Commission | title= Prefixes for binary multiples | url= http://www.iec.ch/si/binary.htm | date= 2007 | accessdate= 2014-02-04}}</ref> Uppercase K as in Kbit/s or Kbps should never be used.{{fact|date=February 2014}}


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The symbol for "bits per second" is "bit/s" (not "bits/s", according to the [[SI unit symbols and values of quantities|writing style for SI units]]). In less formal contexts the abbreviations "b/s" or "bps" are sometimes used, though this risks confusion with "[[byte]]s per second" ("B/s", "Bps"), and the use of the abbreviation ''ps'' is also inconsistent with the [[International System of Units|SI]] symbol for [[picosecond]].
 
One byte per second (1&nbsp;B/s) corresponds to 8&nbsp;bit/s.
 
==Protocol layers {{anchor |Bit rates at various protocol layers}}==
 
===Gross bit rate===
In digital communication systems, the [[physical layer]] '''gross bitrate''',<ref name="Guimarães">{{cite book |url= http://books.google.com/books?id=x4jOplMbLx0C&pg=PA692&dq=gross+bit+rate#v=onepage&q=gross%20bit%20rate&f=false |title=Digital Transmission: A Simulation-Aided Introduction with VisSim/Comm | first =Dayan Adionel | last = Guimarães |publisher=Spinger |year=2009 |chapter=section 8.1.1.3 Gross Bit Rate and Information Rate |accessdate = 2011-07-10}}</ref> '''raw bitrate''',<ref name="Pahlavan">{{cite book |url=http://books.google.com/books?id=WOCrSSfxE-EC&pg=PA133&dq=%22raw+data+rate+is%22#v=onepage&q=%22raw%20data%20rate%20is%22&f=false |title=Networking Fundamentals |author=Kaveh Pahlavan, Prashant Krishnamurthy | publisher= John Wiley & Sons |year=2009 |accessdate=2011-07-10}}</ref> [[data signaling rate]],<ref>{{cite book |url= http://books.google.com/books?id=On_Hh23IXDUC&pg=PA135&dq=dictionary+%22data+signaling+rate%22#v=onepage&q&f=false |title= Network Dictionary |publisher= Javvin Technologies |year = 2007 |accessdate=2011-07-10}}</ref>  '''gross data transfer rate'''<ref name="3G">{{cite book |url= http://books.google.com/books?id=RoJj0zw_pDMC&pg=PA277&dq=%22net+data+transmission+rate%22+%22gross+data+transmission+rate%22#v=onepage&q=%22net%20data%20transmission%20rate%22%20%22gross%20data%20transmission%20rate%22&f=false |title=3G wireless demystified | first1 =Lawrence | last1 = Harte | first2 = Roman | last2 = Kikta | first3 = Richard | last3 = Levine | publisher= McGraw-Hill Professional |year= 2002 |accessdate= 2011-07-10}}</ref> or '''uncoded transmission rate'''<ref name= "Pahlavan" /> (sometimes written as a variable ''R''<sub>b</sub><ref name="Guimarães"/><ref name="Pahlavan"/> or ''f''<sub>b</sub><ref>{{cite book |url=http://books.google.com/books?id=6Hd6WqsgKIMC&pg=SA4-PA30&dq=%22f+b+%3D%22++bps+%22digital+communication%22#v=onepage&q&f=false |title=Principles of Digital Communication |author=J.S. Chitode |publisher=Technical Publication |year=2008 |accessdate=2011-07-10}}</ref>) is the total number of physically transferred bits per second over a communication link, including useful data as well as protocol overhead.
 
In case of [[serial communication]]s, the gross bit rate is related to the bit transmission time <math>T_b</math>
as:
:<math>R_b = {1 \over T_b},</math>
 
The gross bit rate is related to, but should not be confused with, the [[symbol rate]] or modulation rate in [[baud]], symbols/s or pulses/s. Gross bit rate happens to equal "baud" ''only'' when there are two levels per symbol, representing 0 and 1 respectively, meaning that each symbol of a [[data transmission]] system carries exactly one bit of data; something not true for modern [[modem]] modulation systems and modern LANs, for example.<ref>
Lou Frenzel.
[http://electronicdesign.com/communications/what-s-difference-between-bit-rate-and-baud-rate "What’s The Difference Between Bit Rate And Baud Rate?"].
Electronic Design. 2012.
</ref>
 
For most [[line code]]s and [[modulation]] methods:
 
:Symbol rate ≤ Gross bit rate
 
More specifically, a line code  (or [[baseband transmission]] scheme) representing the data using [[pulse-amplitude modulation]] with 2<sup>''N''</sup> different voltage levels, can transfer ''N'' bit/pulse. A [[digital modulation]] method (or [[passband transmission]] scheme) using 2<sup>''N''</sup> different symbols, for example 2<sup>''N''</sup> amplitudes, phases or frequencies, can transfer ''N'' bit/symbol. This results in:
 
:Gross bit rate  =  Symbol rate · ''N''
 
An exception from the above is some self-synchronizing line codes, for example [[Manchester coding]] and [[return-to-zero]] (RTZ) coding, where each bit is represented by two pulses (signal states), resulting in:
 
:Gross bit rate  =  Symbol rate/2
 
A theoretical upper bound for the symbol rate in baud, symbols/s or pulses/s for a certain [[bandwidth (signal processing)|spectral bandwidth]] in hertz is given by the [[Nyquist rate|Nyquist law]]:
 
:Symbol rate ≤ Nyquist rate = 2 · bandwidth
 
In practice this upper bound can only be approached for [[line coding]] schemes and for so-called [[vestigal sideband]] digital modulation. Most other digital carrier-modulated schemes, for example [[amplitude-shift keying|ASK]], [[phase-shift keying|PSK]], [[quadrature amplitude modulation|QAM]] and [[OFDM]], can be characterized as [[double sideband]] modulation, resulting in the following relation:
 
:Symbol rate ≤ Bandwidth
 
In case of [[parallel port|parallel communication]], the gross bit rate is given by
 
:<math>\sum_{i = 1}^{n} \frac{\log_2 {M_i} }{T_i}</math>
where ''n'' is the number of parallel channels, ''M<sub>i</sub>'' is the number of symbols or levels of the [[modulation]] in the ''i''-th [[channel (communications)|channel]], and ''T<sub>i</sub>'' is the [[symbol duration time]], expressed in seconds, for the ''i''-th channel.
 
===Information rate===
The [[physical layer]] '''net bitrate''',<ref name="Rappaport">Theodory S. Rappaport, [http://books.google.com/books?ei=rzTlTe20EIrKtAaDzN3wBQ&ct=result&hl=en&id=TbgQAQAAMAAJ&dq=%22net+bit+rate%22+wireless&q=%22net+bit+rate%22+ Wireless communications: principles and practice], Prentice Hall PTR, 2002</ref> '''information rate''',<ref name="Guimarães"/>  '''useful bit rate''',<ref>Lajos Hanzo, Peter J. Cherriman, Jürgen Streit, [http://books.google.com/books?id=UPi04XAlfWQC&lpg=PA510&dq=%22useful%20bitrate%22&hl=en&pg=PA510#v=onepage&q=%22useful%20bitrate%22&f=false Video compression and communications: from basics to H.261, H.263, H.264, MPEG4 for DVB and HSDPA-style adaptive turbo-transceivers], Wiley-IEEE, 2007.</ref> '''payload rate''',<ref name="Bagad">V.S.Bagad, I.A.Dhotre, [http://books.google.com/books?id=srkNoDo3mbwC&lpg=SA6-PA26&dq=%22payload%20rate%20is%22&hl=en&pg=SA6-PA26#v=onepage&q=%22payload%20rate%20is%22&f=false Data Communication Systems], Technical Publications, 2009.</ref>  '''net data transfer rate''',<ref name="3G"/> '''coded transmission rate''',<ref name="Pahlavan"/> '''effective data rate'''<ref name="Pahlavan"/> or [[wire speed]] (informal language) of a digital [[communication channel]] is the capacity excluding the [[physical layer]] protocol overhead, for example [[time division multiplex]] (TDM) [[framing bits]], redundant [[forward error correction]] (FEC) codes, equalizer training symbols and other [[channel coding]]. Error-correcting codes are common especially in wireless communication systems, broadband modem standards and modern copper-based high-speed LANs. The physical layer net bitrate is the datarate measured at a reference point in the interface between the datalink layer and physical layer, and may consequently include data link and higher layer overhead.
 
In modems and wireless systems, [[link adaptation]] (automatic adaption of the data rate and the modulation and/or error coding scheme to the signal quality) is often applied. In that context, the term '''peak bitrate''' denotes the net bitrate of the fastest and least robust transmission mode, used for example when the distance is very short between sender and transmitter.<ref>Sudhir Dixit, Ramjee Prasad [http://books.google.com/books?id=L2tA56H9rC0C&lpg=PA145&dq=%22peak%20bit%20rate%20is%22%20wireless&pg=PA145#v=onepage&q=peak%20bit%20rate%20is&f=false Wireless IP and building the mobile Internet], Artech House</ref> Some operating systems and network equipment may detect the "'''connection speed'''"<ref>Guy Hart-Davis,[http://books.google.com/books?id=oLU1XDaiZv8C&lpg=PA704&dq=detection%20%22%20connection%20speed%22%20windows&hl=sv&pg=PA704#v=onepage&q=connection%20speed&f=false Mastering Microsoft Windows Vista home: premium and basic], John Wiley and Sons, 2007</ref> (informal language) of a network access technology or communication device, implying the current net bit rate. Note that the term '''line rate''' in some textbooks is defined as gross bit rate,<ref name="Bagad"/> in others as net bit rate.
 
The relationship between the gross bit rate and net bit rate is affected by the FEC [[code rate]] according to the following.
 
:Net bit rate ≤ Gross bit rate · [[code rate]]
 
The connection speed of a technology that involves forward error correction typically refers to the physical layer ''net bit rate'' in accordance with the above definition.
 
For example, the net bitrate (and thus the "connection speed") of an [[IEEE 802.11a]] wireless network is the net bit rate of between 6 and 54&nbsp;Mbit/s, while the gross bit rate is between 12 and 72&nbsp;Mbit/s inclusive of error-correcting codes.
 
The net bit rate of ISDN2 [[Basic Rate Interface]] (2 B-channels + 1 D-channel) of 64+64+16 = 144&nbsp;kbit/s also refers to the payload data rates, while the D channel signalling rate is 16&nbsp;kbit/s.
 
The net bit rate of the Ethernet 100Base-TX physical layer standard is 100&nbsp;Mbit/s, while the gross bitrate is 125&nbsp;Mbit/second, due to the [[4B5B]] (four bit over five bit) encoding. In this case, the gross bit rate is equal to the symbol rate or pulse rate of 125&nbsp;Mbaud, due to the [[NRZI]] [[line code]].
 
In communications technologies without forward error correction and other physical layer protocol overhead, there is no distinction between gross bit rate and physical layer net bit rate. For example, the net as well as gross bit rate of Ethernet 10Base-T is 10&nbsp;Mbit/s. Due to the [[Manchester code|Manchester]] line code, each bit is represented by two pulses, resulting in a pulse rate of 20&nbsp;Mbaud.
 
The "connection speed" of a [[V.92]] [[voiceband]] [[modem]] typically refers to the gross bit rate, since there is no additional error-correction code. It can be up to 56,000&nbsp;bit/s [[downstream (computer science)|downstreams]] and 48,000&nbsp;bit/s [[upstream (networking)|upstreams]]. A lower bit rate may be chosen during the connection establishment phase due to [[adaptive modulation]] - slower but more robust modulation schemes are chosen in case of poor [[signal-to-noise ratio]]. Due to data compression, the actual data transmission rate or throughput (see below) may be higher.
 
The [[channel capacity]], also known as the [[Shannon–Hartley theorem|Shannon]] capacity, is a theoretical upper bound for the maximum net bitrate, exclusive of forward error correction coding, that is possible without bit errors for a certain physical analog node-to-node [[communication link]].
 
:Net bit rate ≤ Channel capacity
 
The channel capacity is proportional to the [[analog bandwidth]] in hertz. This proportionality is called [[Hartley's law]]. Consequently the net bit rate is sometimes called [[digital bandwidth]] capacity in bit/s.
 
===Network throughput===
{{main|Throughput}}
 
The term ''[[throughput]]'', essentially the same thing as '''[[bandwidth (computing)|digital bandwidth]] consumption''', denotes the achieved average useful bit rate in a computer network over a logical or physical communication link or through a network node, typically measured at a reference point above the [[datalink layer]]. This implies that the throughput often excludes data link layer protocol overhead. The throughput is affected by the traffic load from the data source in question, as well as from other sources sharing the same network resources. See also [[Measuring network throughput]].
 
===Goodput (data transfer rate)===
{{main|Goodput}}
 
''[[Goodput]]'' or '''data transfer rate''' refers to the achieved average net bit rate that is delivered to the [[application layer]], exclusive of all protocol overhead, data packets retransmissions, etc. For example, in the case of file transfer, the goodput corresponds to the achieved '''file transfer rate'''. The file transfer rate in bit/s can be calculated as the file size (in bytes) divided by the file transfer time (in seconds) and multiplied by eight.
 
As an example, the goodput or data transfer rate of a V.92 voiceband modem is affected by the modem physical layer and data link layer protocols. It is sometimes higher than the physical layer data rate due to [[V.44]] [[data compression]], and sometimes lower due to bit-errors and [[automatic repeat request]] retransmissions.
 
If no data compression is provided by the network equipment or protocols, we have the following relation:
 
:Goodput ≤ Throughput ≤ Maximum throughput ≤ Net bit rate
 
for a certain communication path.
 
===Multimedia encoding {{anchor | Multimedia encoding bit rate}}===
In digital [[multimedia]], ''bit rate'' often refers to the number of bits used per unit of playback time to represent a continuous medium such as [[sound recording|audio]] or [[video]] after [[source coding]] (data compression). The encoding bit rate of a multimedia file is the size of a multimedia file in [[bytes]] divided by the playback time of the recording (in seconds), multiplied by eight.
 
For realtime [[streaming multimedia]], the encoding bit rate is the [[goodput]] that is required to avoid interrupt:
 
:Encoding bit rate = Required goodput
 
The term [[average bitrate]] is used in case of [[variable bitrate]] multimedia source coding schemes. In this context, the '''peak bit rate''' is the maximum number of bits required for any short-term block of compressed data.<ref>Khalid Sayood, [http://books.google.com/books?id=LjQiGwyabVwC&pg=PA264&dq=%22peak+bit+rate%22&hl=en&ei=6zflTfGLNcXQsganv7n3BQ&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=3&ved=0CDcQ6AEwAg#v=onepage&q=%22peak%20bit%20rate%22&f=false Lossless compression handbook], Academic Press, 2003.</ref> 
 
A theoretical lower bound for the encoding bit rate for [[lossless data compression]] is the [[source information rate]], also known as the ''entropy rate''.
 
:Entropy rate ≤ Multimedia bit rate
 
==Prefixes==
When quantifying large bit rates, [[SI prefix]]es (also known as [[Metric prefix]]es or Decimal prefixes) are used, thus:
{|
|-
|align="right"| 1,000&nbsp;bit/s ||rate = 1&nbsp;[[kbit/s]] (one [[kilobit]] or one [[thousand]] bits per second)
|-
|align="right"| 1,000,000&nbsp;bit/s ||rate = 1&nbsp;[[Mbit/s]] (one [[megabit]] or one [[million]] bits per second)
|-
|align="right"| 1,000,000,000&nbsp;bit/s ||rate = 1&nbsp;[[Gbit/s]] (one [[gigabit]] or one [[1000000000 (number)|billion]] bits per second)
|}
 
[[Binary prefix]]es have almost never been used for bit rates, although they may occasionally be seen when data rates are expressed in bytes per second (e.g. 1 kByte/s is sometimes interpreted as 1000 byte/s, sometimes as 1024 byte/s). A 1999 IEC standard ([[IEC 60027-2]]) specifies different abbreviations for binary and decimal (SI) prefixes (e.g. 1 [[kibibyte|KiB]]/s = 1024&nbsp;byte/s = 8192&nbsp;bit/s, and 1 [[mebibyte|MiB]]/s = 1024 KiB/s), but these are still not very common in the literature, and therefore sometimes it is necessary to seek clarification of the units used in a particular context.
 
==Progress trends==
These are examples of physical layer net bit rates in proposed communication standard interfaces and devices:
{| class="wikitable" style="margin: 1em auto 1em auto"
|-
! WAN [[modem]]s
! [[Ethernet]] LAN
! [[WiFi]] [[WLAN]]
! [[Comparison of mobile phone standards|Mobile data]]
|-
|
* 1972: [[Acoustic coupler]] 300&nbsp;baud
* 1977: 1200&nbsp;baud [[Modem#The Carterfone decision|Vadic and Bell 212A]]
* 1986: [[ISDN]] introduced with two 64&nbsp;kbit/s channels (144&nbsp;kbit/s gross bit rate)
* 1990: [[V.32bis]] [[modem]]s: 2400 / 4800 / 9600 / 19200&nbsp;bit/s
* 1994: [[V.34 (recommendation)|V.34]] modems with 28.8&nbsp;kbit/s
* 1995: [[V.90 (recommendation)|V.90]] modems with 56&nbsp;kbit/s downstreams, 33.6&nbsp;kbit/s upstreams
* 1999: [[V.92]] modems with 56&nbsp;kbit/s downstreams, 48&nbsp;kbit/s upstreams
* 1998: [[Asymmetric Digital Subscriber Line|ADSL]] up to 8&nbsp;Mbit/s,
* 2003: [[ADSL2]] up to 12&nbsp;Mbit/s
* 2005: [[ADSL2+]] up to 24&nbsp;Mbit/s
* 2005: [[VDSL2]] up to 200&nbsp;Mbit/s
|
* 1975: Experimental 2.94&nbsp;Mbit/s
* 1981: 10&nbsp;Mbit/s [[10BASE5]] ([[coax]])
* 1990: 10&nbsp;Mbit/s [[10BASE-T]] ([[twisted pair]])
* 1995: 100&nbsp;Mbit/s [[Fast Ethernet]]
* 1999: [[Gigabit Ethernet]]
* 2003: [[10 Gigabit Ethernet]]
* 2010: [[100 Gigabit Ethernet]]
|
* 1997: [[IEEE 802.11|802.11]] 2&nbsp;Mbit/s
* 1999: [[IEEE 802.11|802.11b]] 11&nbsp;Mbit/s
* 1999: [[IEEE 802.11|802.11a]] 54&nbsp;Mbit/s
* 2003: [[IEEE 802.11|802.11g]] 54&nbsp;Mbit/s
* 2007: [[IEEE 802.11|802.11n]] 600&nbsp;Mbit/s
* 2012: [[IEEE 802.11|802.11ac]] ~1000&nbsp;Mbit/s
|
* [[1G]]:
** 1981: [[Nordic Mobile Telephone|NMT]] 1200&nbsp;bit/s
* [[2G]]:
** 1991: [[GSM]] [[circuit switched data|CSD]] and [[D-AMPS]] 14.4&nbsp;kbit/s
** 2003: [[Enhanced Data Rates for GSM Evolution|GSM EDGE]] 296&nbsp;kbit/s down, 118.4&nbsp;kbit/s up
* [[3G]]:
** 2001: [[UMTS]]-FDD ([[WCDMA]]) 384&nbsp;kbit/s
** 2007: UMTS [[HSDPA]] 14.4&nbsp;Mbit/s
** 2008: UMTS [[High Speed Packet Access|HSPA]] 14.4&nbsp;Mbit/s down, 5.76&nbsp;Mbit/s up
** 2009: [[HSPA+]] (Without MIMO) 28&nbsp;Mbit/s downstreams (56&nbsp;Mbit/s with 2x2 MIMO), 22&nbsp;Mbit/s upstreams
** 2010: CDMA2000 [[EV-DO]] Rev. B 14.7&nbsp;Mbit/s downstreams
** 2011: [[HSPA+]] accelerated (With MIMO) 42&nbsp;Mbit/s downstreams
* [[Pre-4G]]:
** 2007: [[Mobile WiMAX]] (IEEE 802.16e) 144&nbsp;Mbit/s down, 35&nbsp;Mbit/s up.
** 2009: [[3GPP Long Term Evolution|LTE]] 100&nbsp;Mbit/s downstreams (360&nbsp;Mbit/s with MIMO&nbsp;2x2), 50&nbsp;Mbit/s upstreams
 
See also [[Comparison of mobile phone standards]]
|}
 
For more examples, see [[List of device bit rates]], [[Spectral efficiency comparison table]] and [[OFDM system comparison table]].
 
==Multimedia {{anchor | Bitrates in multimedia}}==
In digital multimedia, bitrate represents the amount of information, or detail, that is stored per unit of time of a recording. The bitrate depends on several factors:
*The original material may be sampled at different frequencies
*The samples may use different numbers of bits
*The data may be encoded by different schemes
*The information may be digitally [[data compression|compressed]] by different algorithms or to different degrees
Generally, choices are made about the above factors in order to achieve the desired trade-off between minimizing the bitrate and maximizing the quality of the material when it is played.
 
If [[lossy data compression]] is used on audio or visual data, differences from the original signal will be introduced; if the compression is substantial, or lossy data is decompressed and recompressed, this may become noticeable in the form of [[compression artifact]]s. Whether these affect the perceived quality, and if so how much, depends on the compression scheme, encoder power, the characteristics of the input data, the listener’s perceptions, the listener's familiarity with artifacts, and the listening or viewing environment.
 
The bitrates in this section are approximately the ''minimum'' that the ''average'' listener in a typical listening or viewing environment, when using the best available compression, would perceive as not significantly worse than the reference standard:
<!-- PLEASE understand the above sentence before making changes. References to controlled tests would be valuable. But this discussion really belongs elsewhere. -->
 
===Audio ===
CD-DA, the standard audio CD, is said to have a data rate of 44.1&nbsp;kHz/16, meaning that the audio data was sampled 44,100 times per second and with a bit depth of 16. CD-DA is also [[Stereophonic sound|stereo]], using a left and right [[Audio channel|channel]], so the amount of audio data per second is double that of mono, where only a single channel is used.
 
The bit rate of PCM audio data can be calculated with the following formula:
:<math>bit\ rate = sample\ rate \times bit\ depth \times channels</math>
 
For example, the bit rate of a CD-DA recording (44.1&nbsp;kHz sampling rate, 16 bits per sample and 2 channels) can be calculated as follows:
:<math>44,100 \times 16 \times 2 = 1,411,200\ \mathrm{bit/s} = 1,411.2\ \mathrm{kbit/s}</math>
 
The cumulative size of a length of audio data (excluding a file [[Header (computing)|header]] or other [[metadata]]) can be calculated using the following formula:
:<math>size\ in\ bits = sample\ rate \times bit\ depth \times channels \times length\ of\ time</math>
 
The cumulative size in bytes can be found by dividing the file size in bits by the number of bits in a byte, which is 8:
:<math>size\ in\ bytes = \frac{size\ in\ bits}{8}</math>
 
Therefore, 80 minutes (4,800 seconds) of CD-DA data requires 846,720,000 bytes of storage:
:<math>\frac{44,100 \times 16 \times 2 \times 4,800}{8} = 846,720,000\ \mathrm{bytes} \approx 847\ \mathrm{MB}</math>
 
==== MP3 ====
The [[MP3]] audio format [[lossy data compression]]. Audio quality improves with increasing bitrate.
* 32&nbsp;kbit/s - generally acceptable only for speech
* 96&nbsp;kbit/s - generally used for speech or low-quality streaming
* 128 or 160&nbsp;kbit/s – mid-range bitrate quality
* 192&nbsp;kbit/s - a commonly used high-quality bitrate
* 320&nbsp;kbit/s - highest level supported by [[MP3]] standard
 
====Other audio====
* 800&nbsp;bit/s &ndash; minimum necessary for recognizable speech, using the special-purpose [[FS-1015]] [[speech encoding|speech codecs]].
* 1400&nbsp;bit/s &ndash; lowest bitrate open-source speech codec [[Codec2]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.rowetel.com/blog/?p=2255|title=Codec2 at 1400 bits/s|publisher=David Rowe|date=|accessdate=2011-11-22}}</ref>
* 2.15&nbsp;kbit/s &ndash; minimum bitrate available through the open-source [[Speex]] codec.
* 8&nbsp;kbit/s &ndash; [[telephone]] quality using speech codecs.
* 32-500&nbsp;kbit/s &ndash; [[Lossy compression|lossy audio]] as used in [[Ogg Vorbis]].
* 256&nbsp;kbit/s &ndash; Digital Audio Broadcasting ([[Digital Audio Broadcasting|DAB]].) [[MPEG-1 Audio Layer II|MP2]] bit rate required to achieve a high quality signal.<ref>Page 26 of BBC R&D White Paper WHP 061 June 2003, DAB: An introduction to the DAB Eureka system and how it works http://downloads.bbc.co.uk/rd/pubs/whp/whp-pdf-files/WHP061.pdf</ref>
* 400&nbsp;kbit/s–1,411&nbsp;kbit/s &ndash; [[Lossless compression|lossless audio]] as used in formats such as [[Free Lossless Audio Codec]], [[WavPack]], or [[Monkey's Audio]] to compress CD audio.
* 1,411.2&nbsp;kbit/s &ndash; [[Linear PCM]] sound format of [[CD-DA]].
* 5,644.8&nbsp;kbit/s - [[Direct Stream Digital|DSD]], which is a trademarked implementation of [[Pulse-density modulation|PDM]] sound format used on [[Super Audio CD]].<ref>Extremetech.com, Leslie Shapiro, 2 July 2001. ''Surround Sound:'' [http://www.extremetech.com/article2/0,2845,1180143,00.asp ''The High-End: SACD and DVD-Audio''.] Retrieved 19 May 2010. 2 channels, 1-bit, 2822.4 kHz DSD audio (2x1x2,822,400)= 5,644,800&nbsp;bits/s</ref>
* 6.144&nbsp;Mbit/s - E-AC-3 (Dolby Digital Plus), which is an enhanced coding system based on the AC-3 codec.
* 18&nbsp;Mbit/s - advanced lossless audio codec based on [[Meridian Lossless Packing]].
 
===Video===
* 16&nbsp;kbit/s – [[videophone]] quality (minimum necessary for a consumer-acceptable "talking head" picture using various video compression schemes)
* 128&ndash;384&nbsp;kbit/s – business-oriented [[videoconferencing]] quality using video compression
* 1.15&nbsp;Mbit/s max – [[VCD]] quality (using [[MPEG-1|MPEG1]] compression)<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.icdia.co.uk/cdprosupport/encoding/pink/mpeg1_specs.htm | title = MPEG1 Specifications |publisher=ICDia | location = UK |date= |accessdate=2011-07-11}}</ref>
* 3.5&nbsp;Mbit/s typ — [[Standard-definition television]] quality (with bit-rate reduction from MPEG-2 compression)
* 9.8&nbsp;Mbit/s max – [[DVD]] (using [[MPEG2]] compression)<ref>{{cite web|url=http://dvd.sourceforge.net/dvdinfo/dvdmpeg.html |title= DVD-MPEG differences | publisher = Sourceforge |date= |accessdate=2011-07-11}}</ref>
* 8 to 15&nbsp;Mbit/s typ – [[High-definition television|HDTV]] quality (with bit-rate reduction from MPEG-4 AVC compression)
* 19&nbsp;Mbit/s approximate — [[HDV]] 720p (using [[MPEG2]] compression)<ref name="hdv-info.org">{{Citation | url = http://www.hdv-info.org/HDVSpecifications.pdf | title = HDV Specifications | publisher = HDV Information | format = [[PDF]]}}.</ref>
* 24&nbsp;Mbit/s max — [[AVCHD]] (using [[H.264/MPEG-4 AVC|MPEG4 AVC]] compression)<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.avchd-info.org/format/ |title=Avchd Information | publisher = AVCHD Info |date= |accessdate=2011-07-11}}</ref>
* 25&nbsp;Mbit/s approximate — [[HDV]] 1080i (using [[MPEG2]] compression)<ref name="hdv-info.org"/>
* 29.4&nbsp;Mbit/s max – [[HD DVD]]
* 40&nbsp;Mbit/s max – [[Blu-ray Disc]] (using [[MPEG2]], [[H.264/MPEG-4 AVC|AVC]] or [[VC-1]] compression)<ref>{{Citation | format = [[PDF]] | type = white paper | title = Blu-ray Disc Format 2.B Audio Visual Application Format Specifications for BD-ROM Version 2.4 | date = May 2010 | page = 17 | chapter = 3.3 Video Streams | url = http://www.blu-raydisc.com/assets/Downloadablefile/BD-ROM-AV-WhitePaper_100604%281%29-15916.pdf}}.</ref>
 
===Notes===
For technical reasons (hardware/software protocols, overheads, encoding schemes, etc.) the ''actual'' bit rates used by some of the compared-to devices may be significantly higher than what is listed above. For example:
* Telephone circuits using [[Mu-law algorithm|µlaw]] or [[A-law algorithm|A-law]] [[companding]] (pulse code modulation) – 64&nbsp;kbit/s
* CDs using [[CD-DA]] [[Pulse code modulation|PCM]] – 1.4&nbsp;Mbit/s
 
==See also==
{{Div col||25em}}
* [[Dolby AC-3]]
* [[Audio bit depth]]
* [[Average bitrate]]
* [[Bandwidth (computing)]]
* [[Baud]] (symbol rate)
* [[Bit-synchronous operation]]
* [[Clock rate]]
* [[Code rate]]
* [[Constant bitrate]]
* [[Data rate units]]
* [[Data signaling rate]]
* [[List of device bit rates]]
* [[Measuring network throughput]]
* [[Orders of magnitude (bit rate)]]
* [[Spectral efficiency]]
* [[Variable bitrate]]
{{Div col end}}
 
==References==
{{Reflist|30em}}
{{FS1037C MS188}}
 
==External links==
* [http://dvd-hq.info/bitrate_calculator.php DVD-HQ bit rate calculator] Calculate bit rate for various types of digital video media.
* [http://www.maximumpc.com/article/do_higher_mp3_bit_rates_pay_off?page=0%2C0 Maximum PC - Do Higher MP3 Bit Rates Pay Off?]
 
{{Compression Methods}}
 
{{DEFAULTSORT:Bit Rate}}
[[Category:Data transmission]]
[[Category:Units of measurement|Bits per second]]

Revision as of 18:04, 4 January 2014

28 year-old Painting Investments Worker Truman from Regina, usually spends time with pastimes for instance interior design, property developers in new launch ec Singapore and writing. Last month just traveled to City of the Renaissance. 30 year-old Entertainer or Range Artist Wesley from Drumheller, really loves vehicle, property developers properties for sale in singapore singapore and horse racing. Finds inspiration by traveling to Works of Antoni Gaudí. Electronic Tool Deals Staff (Common ) Cameron Batterton from Nelson, loves to spend some time wargames, property developers properties for sale in singapore singapore and aerobics. Advocates that you simply visit Mount Carmel: The Nahal Me’arot / Wadi el-Mughara Caves. In telecommunications and computing, bit rate (sometimes written bitrate or as a variable R[1]) is the number of bits that are conveyed or processed per unit of time.

The bit rate is quantified using the bits per second (bit/s or bps) unit, often in conjunction with an SI prefix such as kilo- (kbit/s or kbps), mega- (Mbit/s or Mbps), giga- (Gbit/s or Gbps) or tera- (Tbit/s or Tbps). Note that, unlike many other computer-related units, 1 kbit/s is traditionally defined as 1,000 bit/s, not 1,024 bit/s, etc., also before 1999 when SI prefixes were introduced for units of information in the standard IEC 60027-2.[2] Uppercase K as in Kbit/s or Kbps should never be used.Template:Fact

The symbol for "bits per second" is "bit/s" (not "bits/s", according to the writing style for SI units). In less formal contexts the abbreviations "b/s" or "bps" are sometimes used, though this risks confusion with "bytes per second" ("B/s", "Bps"), and the use of the abbreviation ps is also inconsistent with the SI symbol for picosecond.

One byte per second (1 B/s) corresponds to 8 bit/s.

Protocol layers <Bit rates at various protocol layers>...</Bit rates at various protocol layers>

Gross bit rate

In digital communication systems, the physical layer gross bitrate,[3] raw bitrate,[4] data signaling rate,[5] gross data transfer rate[6] or uncoded transmission rate[4] (sometimes written as a variable Rb[3][4] or fb[7]) is the total number of physically transferred bits per second over a communication link, including useful data as well as protocol overhead.

In case of serial communications, the gross bit rate is related to the bit transmission time Tb as:

Rb=1Tb,

The gross bit rate is related to, but should not be confused with, the symbol rate or modulation rate in baud, symbols/s or pulses/s. Gross bit rate happens to equal "baud" only when there are two levels per symbol, representing 0 and 1 respectively, meaning that each symbol of a data transmission system carries exactly one bit of data; something not true for modern modem modulation systems and modern LANs, for example.[8]

For most line codes and modulation methods:

Symbol rate ≤ Gross bit rate

More specifically, a line code (or baseband transmission scheme) representing the data using pulse-amplitude modulation with 2N different voltage levels, can transfer N bit/pulse. A digital modulation method (or passband transmission scheme) using 2N different symbols, for example 2N amplitudes, phases or frequencies, can transfer N bit/symbol. This results in:

Gross bit rate = Symbol rate · N

An exception from the above is some self-synchronizing line codes, for example Manchester coding and return-to-zero (RTZ) coding, where each bit is represented by two pulses (signal states), resulting in:

Gross bit rate = Symbol rate/2

A theoretical upper bound for the symbol rate in baud, symbols/s or pulses/s for a certain spectral bandwidth in hertz is given by the Nyquist law:

Symbol rate ≤ Nyquist rate = 2 · bandwidth

In practice this upper bound can only be approached for line coding schemes and for so-called vestigal sideband digital modulation. Most other digital carrier-modulated schemes, for example ASK, PSK, QAM and OFDM, can be characterized as double sideband modulation, resulting in the following relation:

Symbol rate ≤ Bandwidth

In case of parallel communication, the gross bit rate is given by

∑i=1nlog2MiTi

where n is the number of parallel channels, Mi is the number of symbols or levels of the modulation in the i-th channel, and Ti is the symbol duration time, expressed in seconds, for the i-th channel.

Information rate

The physical layer net bitrate,[9] information rate,[3] useful bit rate,[10] payload rate,[11] net data transfer rate,[6] coded transmission rate,[4] effective data rate[4] or wire speed (informal language) of a digital communication channel is the capacity excluding the physical layer protocol overhead, for example time division multiplex (TDM) framing bits, redundant forward error correction (FEC) codes, equalizer training symbols and other channel coding. Error-correcting codes are common especially in wireless communication systems, broadband modem standards and modern copper-based high-speed LANs. The physical layer net bitrate is the datarate measured at a reference point in the interface between the datalink layer and physical layer, and may consequently include data link and higher layer overhead.

In modems and wireless systems, link adaptation (automatic adaption of the data rate and the modulation and/or error coding scheme to the signal quality) is often applied. In that context, the term peak bitrate denotes the net bitrate of the fastest and least robust transmission mode, used for example when the distance is very short between sender and transmitter.[12] Some operating systems and network equipment may detect the "connection speed"[13] (informal language) of a network access technology or communication device, implying the current net bit rate. Note that the term line rate in some textbooks is defined as gross bit rate,[11] in others as net bit rate.

The relationship between the gross bit rate and net bit rate is affected by the FEC code rate according to the following.

Net bit rate ≤ Gross bit rate · code rate

The connection speed of a technology that involves forward error correction typically refers to the physical layer net bit rate in accordance with the above definition.

For example, the net bitrate (and thus the "connection speed") of an IEEE 802.11a wireless network is the net bit rate of between 6 and 54 Mbit/s, while the gross bit rate is between 12 and 72 Mbit/s inclusive of error-correcting codes.

The net bit rate of ISDN2 Basic Rate Interface (2 B-channels + 1 D-channel) of 64+64+16 = 144 kbit/s also refers to the payload data rates, while the D channel signalling rate is 16 kbit/s.

The net bit rate of the Ethernet 100Base-TX physical layer standard is 100 Mbit/s, while the gross bitrate is 125 Mbit/second, due to the 4B5B (four bit over five bit) encoding. In this case, the gross bit rate is equal to the symbol rate or pulse rate of 125 Mbaud, due to the NRZI line code.

In communications technologies without forward error correction and other physical layer protocol overhead, there is no distinction between gross bit rate and physical layer net bit rate. For example, the net as well as gross bit rate of Ethernet 10Base-T is 10 Mbit/s. Due to the Manchester line code, each bit is represented by two pulses, resulting in a pulse rate of 20 Mbaud.

The "connection speed" of a V.92 voiceband modem typically refers to the gross bit rate, since there is no additional error-correction code. It can be up to 56,000 bit/s downstreams and 48,000 bit/s upstreams. A lower bit rate may be chosen during the connection establishment phase due to adaptive modulation - slower but more robust modulation schemes are chosen in case of poor signal-to-noise ratio. Due to data compression, the actual data transmission rate or throughput (see below) may be higher.

The channel capacity, also known as the Shannon capacity, is a theoretical upper bound for the maximum net bitrate, exclusive of forward error correction coding, that is possible without bit errors for a certain physical analog node-to-node communication link.

Net bit rate ≤ Channel capacity

The channel capacity is proportional to the analog bandwidth in hertz. This proportionality is called Hartley's law. Consequently the net bit rate is sometimes called digital bandwidth capacity in bit/s.

Network throughput

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The term throughput, essentially the same thing as digital bandwidth consumption, denotes the achieved average useful bit rate in a computer network over a logical or physical communication link or through a network node, typically measured at a reference point above the datalink layer. This implies that the throughput often excludes data link layer protocol overhead. The throughput is affected by the traffic load from the data source in question, as well as from other sources sharing the same network resources. See also Measuring network throughput.

Goodput (data transfer rate)

Mining Engineer (Excluding Oil ) Truman from Alma, loves to spend time knotting, largest property developers in singapore developers in singapore and stamp collecting. Recently had a family visit to Urnes Stave Church.

Goodput or data transfer rate refers to the achieved average net bit rate that is delivered to the application layer, exclusive of all protocol overhead, data packets retransmissions, etc. For example, in the case of file transfer, the goodput corresponds to the achieved file transfer rate. The file transfer rate in bit/s can be calculated as the file size (in bytes) divided by the file transfer time (in seconds) and multiplied by eight.

As an example, the goodput or data transfer rate of a V.92 voiceband modem is affected by the modem physical layer and data link layer protocols. It is sometimes higher than the physical layer data rate due to V.44 data compression, and sometimes lower due to bit-errors and automatic repeat request retransmissions.

If no data compression is provided by the network equipment or protocols, we have the following relation:

Goodput ≤ Throughput ≤ Maximum throughput ≤ Net bit rate

for a certain communication path.

Multimedia encoding <Multimedia encoding bit rate>...</ Multimedia encoding bit rate>

In digital multimedia, bit rate often refers to the number of bits used per unit of playback time to represent a continuous medium such as audio or video after source coding (data compression). The encoding bit rate of a multimedia file is the size of a multimedia file in bytes divided by the playback time of the recording (in seconds), multiplied by eight.

For realtime streaming multimedia, the encoding bit rate is the goodput that is required to avoid interrupt:

Encoding bit rate = Required goodput

The term average bitrate is used in case of variable bitrate multimedia source coding schemes. In this context, the peak bit rate is the maximum number of bits required for any short-term block of compressed data.[14]

A theoretical lower bound for the encoding bit rate for lossless data compression is the source information rate, also known as the entropy rate.

Entropy rate ≤ Multimedia bit rate

Prefixes

When quantifying large bit rates, SI prefixes (also known as Metric prefixes or Decimal prefixes) are used, thus:

1,000 bit/s rate = 1 kbit/s (one kilobit or one thousand bits per second)
1,000,000 bit/s rate = 1 Mbit/s (one megabit or one million bits per second)
1,000,000,000 bit/s rate = 1 Gbit/s (one gigabit or one billion bits per second)

Binary prefixes have almost never been used for bit rates, although they may occasionally be seen when data rates are expressed in bytes per second (e.g. 1 kByte/s is sometimes interpreted as 1000 byte/s, sometimes as 1024 byte/s). A 1999 IEC standard (IEC 60027-2) specifies different abbreviations for binary and decimal (SI) prefixes (e.g. 1 KiB/s = 1024 byte/s = 8192 bit/s, and 1 MiB/s = 1024 KiB/s), but these are still not very common in the literature, and therefore sometimes it is necessary to seek clarification of the units used in a particular context.

Progress trends

These are examples of physical layer net bit rates in proposed communication standard interfaces and devices:

WAN modems Ethernet LAN WiFi WLAN Mobile data
  • 1972: Acoustic coupler 300 baud
  • 1977: 1200 baud Vadic and Bell 212A
  • 1986: ISDN introduced with two 64 kbit/s channels (144 kbit/s gross bit rate)
  • 1990: V.32bis modems: 2400 / 4800 / 9600 / 19200 bit/s
  • 1994: V.34 modems with 28.8 kbit/s
  • 1995: V.90 modems with 56 kbit/s downstreams, 33.6 kbit/s upstreams
  • 1999: V.92 modems with 56 kbit/s downstreams, 48 kbit/s upstreams
  • 1998: ADSL up to 8 Mbit/s,
  • 2003: ADSL2 up to 12 Mbit/s
  • 2005: ADSL2+ up to 24 Mbit/s
  • 2005: VDSL2 up to 200 Mbit/s
  • 1G:
    • 1981: NMT 1200 bit/s
  • 2G:
  • 3G:
    • 2001: UMTS-FDD (WCDMA) 384 kbit/s
    • 2007: UMTS HSDPA 14.4 Mbit/s
    • 2008: UMTS HSPA 14.4 Mbit/s down, 5.76 Mbit/s up
    • 2009: HSPA+ (Without MIMO) 28 Mbit/s downstreams (56 Mbit/s with 2x2 MIMO), 22 Mbit/s upstreams
    • 2010: CDMA2000 EV-DO Rev. B 14.7 Mbit/s downstreams
    • 2011: HSPA+ accelerated (With MIMO) 42 Mbit/s downstreams
  • Pre-4G:
    • 2007: Mobile WiMAX (IEEE 802.16e) 144 Mbit/s down, 35 Mbit/s up.
    • 2009: LTE 100 Mbit/s downstreams (360 Mbit/s with MIMO 2x2), 50 Mbit/s upstreams

See also Comparison of mobile phone standards

For more examples, see List of device bit rates, Spectral efficiency comparison table and OFDM system comparison table.

Multimedia <Bitrates in multimedia>...</ Bitrates in multimedia>

In digital multimedia, bitrate represents the amount of information, or detail, that is stored per unit of time of a recording. The bitrate depends on several factors:

  • The original material may be sampled at different frequencies
  • The samples may use different numbers of bits
  • The data may be encoded by different schemes
  • The information may be digitally compressed by different algorithms or to different degrees

Generally, choices are made about the above factors in order to achieve the desired trade-off between minimizing the bitrate and maximizing the quality of the material when it is played.

If lossy data compression is used on audio or visual data, differences from the original signal will be introduced; if the compression is substantial, or lossy data is decompressed and recompressed, this may become noticeable in the form of compression artifacts. Whether these affect the perceived quality, and if so how much, depends on the compression scheme, encoder power, the characteristics of the input data, the listener’s perceptions, the listener's familiarity with artifacts, and the listening or viewing environment.

The bitrates in this section are approximately the minimum that the average listener in a typical listening or viewing environment, when using the best available compression, would perceive as not significantly worse than the reference standard:

Audio

CD-DA, the standard audio CD, is said to have a data rate of 44.1 kHz/16, meaning that the audio data was sampled 44,100 times per second and with a bit depth of 16. CD-DA is also stereo, using a left and right channel, so the amount of audio data per second is double that of mono, where only a single channel is used.

The bit rate of PCM audio data can be calculated with the following formula:

bitrate=samplerate×bitdepth×channels

For example, the bit rate of a CD-DA recording (44.1 kHz sampling rate, 16 bits per sample and 2 channels) can be calculated as follows:

44,100×16×2=1,411,200bit/s=1,411.2kbit/s

The cumulative size of a length of audio data (excluding a file header or other metadata) can be calculated using the following formula:

sizeinbits=samplerate×bitdepth×channels×lengthoftime

The cumulative size in bytes can be found by dividing the file size in bits by the number of bits in a byte, which is 8:

sizeinbytes=sizeinbits8

Therefore, 80 minutes (4,800 seconds) of CD-DA data requires 846,720,000 bytes of storage:

44,100×16×2×4,8008=846,720,000bytes≈847MB

MP3

The MP3 audio format lossy data compression. Audio quality improves with increasing bitrate.

  • 32 kbit/s - generally acceptable only for speech
  • 96 kbit/s - generally used for speech or low-quality streaming
  • 128 or 160 kbit/s – mid-range bitrate quality
  • 192 kbit/s - a commonly used high-quality bitrate
  • 320 kbit/s - highest level supported by MP3 standard

Other audio

Video

  • 16 kbit/s – videophone quality (minimum necessary for a consumer-acceptable "talking head" picture using various video compression schemes)
  • 128–384 kbit/s – business-oriented videoconferencing quality using video compression
  • 1.15 Mbit/s max – VCD quality (using MPEG1 compression)[18]
  • 3.5 Mbit/s typ — Standard-definition television quality (with bit-rate reduction from MPEG-2 compression)
  • 9.8 Mbit/s max – DVD (using MPEG2 compression)[19]
  • 8 to 15 Mbit/s typ – HDTV quality (with bit-rate reduction from MPEG-4 AVC compression)
  • 19 Mbit/s approximate — HDV 720p (using MPEG2 compression)[20]
  • 24 Mbit/s max — AVCHD (using MPEG4 AVC compression)[21]
  • 25 Mbit/s approximate — HDV 1080i (using MPEG2 compression)[20]
  • 29.4 Mbit/s max – HD DVD
  • 40 Mbit/s max – Blu-ray Disc (using MPEG2, AVC or VC-1 compression)[22]

Notes

For technical reasons (hardware/software protocols, overheads, encoding schemes, etc.) the actual bit rates used by some of the compared-to devices may be significantly higher than what is listed above. For example:

See also

Organisational Psychologist Alfonzo Lester from Timmins, enjoys pinochle, property developers in new launch singapore property and textiles. Gets motivation through travel and just spent 7 days at Alejandro de Humboldt National Park.

42 year-old Environmental Consultant Merle Eure from Hudson, really loves snowboarding, property developers in new launch ec singapore and cosplay. Maintains a trip blog and has lots to write about after visiting Chhatrapati Shivaji Terminus (formerly Victoria Terminus).

References

43 year old Petroleum Engineer Harry from Deep River, usually spends time with hobbies and interests like renting movies, property developers in singapore new condominium and vehicle racing. Constantly enjoys going to destinations like Camino Real de Tierra Adentro. Template:FS1037C MS188

External links

Template:Compression Methods

  1. ↑ 20 year-old Real Estate Agent Rusty from Saint-Paul, has hobbies and interests which includes monopoly, property developers in singapore and poker. Will soon undertake a contiki trip that may include going to the Lower Valley of the Omo.

    My blog: http://www.primaboinca.com/view_profile.php?userid=5889534
  2. ↑ Template:Cite web
  3. ↑ 3.0 3.1 3.2 20 year-old Real Estate Agent Rusty from Saint-Paul, has hobbies and interests which includes monopoly, property developers in singapore and poker. Will soon undertake a contiki trip that may include going to the Lower Valley of the Omo.

    My blog: http://www.primaboinca.com/view_profile.php?userid=5889534
  4. ↑ 4.0 4.1 4.2 4.3 4.4 20 year-old Real Estate Agent Rusty from Saint-Paul, has hobbies and interests which includes monopoly, property developers in singapore and poker. Will soon undertake a contiki trip that may include going to the Lower Valley of the Omo.

    My blog: http://www.primaboinca.com/view_profile.php?userid=5889534
  5. ↑ 20 year-old Real Estate Agent Rusty from Saint-Paul, has hobbies and interests which includes monopoly, property developers in singapore and poker. Will soon undertake a contiki trip that may include going to the Lower Valley of the Omo.

    My blog: http://www.primaboinca.com/view_profile.php?userid=5889534
  6. ↑ 6.0 6.1 20 year-old Real Estate Agent Rusty from Saint-Paul, has hobbies and interests which includes monopoly, property developers in singapore and poker. Will soon undertake a contiki trip that may include going to the Lower Valley of the Omo.

    My blog: http://www.primaboinca.com/view_profile.php?userid=5889534
  7. ↑ 20 year-old Real Estate Agent Rusty from Saint-Paul, has hobbies and interests which includes monopoly, property developers in singapore and poker. Will soon undertake a contiki trip that may include going to the Lower Valley of the Omo.

    My blog: http://www.primaboinca.com/view_profile.php?userid=5889534
  8. ↑ Lou Frenzel. "What’s The Difference Between Bit Rate And Baud Rate?". Electronic Design. 2012.
  9. ↑ Theodory S. Rappaport, Wireless communications: principles and practice, Prentice Hall PTR, 2002
  10. ↑ Lajos Hanzo, Peter J. Cherriman, Jürgen Streit, Video compression and communications: from basics to H.261, H.263, H.264, MPEG4 for DVB and HSDPA-style adaptive turbo-transceivers, Wiley-IEEE, 2007.
  11. ↑ 11.0 11.1 V.S.Bagad, I.A.Dhotre, Data Communication Systems, Technical Publications, 2009.
  12. ↑ Sudhir Dixit, Ramjee Prasad Wireless IP and building the mobile Internet, Artech House
  13. ↑ Guy Hart-Davis,Mastering Microsoft Windows Vista home: premium and basic, John Wiley and Sons, 2007
  14. ↑ Khalid Sayood, Lossless compression handbook, Academic Press, 2003.
  15. ↑ Template:Cite web
  16. ↑ Page 26 of BBC R&D White Paper WHP 061 June 2003, DAB: An introduction to the DAB Eureka system and how it works http://downloads.bbc.co.uk/rd/pubs/whp/whp-pdf-files/WHP061.pdf
  17. ↑ Extremetech.com, Leslie Shapiro, 2 July 2001. Surround Sound: The High-End: SACD and DVD-Audio. Retrieved 19 May 2010. 2 channels, 1-bit, 2822.4 kHz DSD audio (2x1x2,822,400)= 5,644,800 bits/s
  18. ↑ Template:Cite web
  19. ↑ Template:Cite web
  20. ↑ 20.0 20.1 Many property agents need to declare for the PIC grant in Singapore. However, not all of them know find out how to do the correct process for getting this PIC scheme from the IRAS. There are a number of steps that you need to do before your software can be approved.

    Naturally, you will have to pay a safety deposit and that is usually one month rent for annually of the settlement. That is the place your good religion deposit will likely be taken into account and will kind part or all of your security deposit. Anticipate to have a proportionate amount deducted out of your deposit if something is discovered to be damaged if you move out. It's best to you'll want to test the inventory drawn up by the owner, which can detail all objects in the property and their condition. If you happen to fail to notice any harm not already mentioned within the inventory before transferring in, you danger having to pay for it yourself.

    In case you are in search of an actual estate or Singapore property agent on-line, you simply should belief your intuition. It's because you do not know which agent is nice and which agent will not be. Carry out research on several brokers by looking out the internet. As soon as if you end up positive that a selected agent is dependable and reliable, you can choose to utilize his partnerise in finding you a home in Singapore. Most of the time, a property agent is taken into account to be good if he or she locations the contact data on his website. This may mean that the agent does not mind you calling them and asking them any questions relating to new properties in singapore in Singapore. After chatting with them you too can see them in their office after taking an appointment.

    Have handed an trade examination i.e Widespread Examination for House Brokers (CEHA) or Actual Property Agency (REA) examination, or equal; Exclusive brokers are extra keen to share listing information thus making certain the widest doable coverage inside the real estate community via Multiple Listings and Networking. Accepting a severe provide is simpler since your agent is totally conscious of all advertising activity related with your property. This reduces your having to check with a number of agents for some other offers. Price control is easily achieved. Paint work in good restore-discuss with your Property Marketing consultant if main works are still to be done. Softening in residential property prices proceed, led by 2.8 per cent decline within the index for Remainder of Central Region

    Once you place down the one per cent choice price to carry down a non-public property, it's important to accept its situation as it is whenever you move in – faulty air-con, choked rest room and all. Get round this by asking your agent to incorporate a ultimate inspection clause within the possibility-to-buy letter. HDB flat patrons routinely take pleasure in this security net. "There's a ultimate inspection of the property two days before the completion of all HDB transactions. If the air-con is defective, you can request the seller to repair it," says Kelvin.

    15.6.1 As the agent is an intermediary, generally, as soon as the principal and third party are introduced right into a contractual relationship, the agent drops out of the image, subject to any problems with remuneration or indemnification that he could have against the principal, and extra exceptionally, against the third occasion. Generally, agents are entitled to be indemnified for all liabilities reasonably incurred within the execution of the brokers´ authority.

    To achieve the very best outcomes, you must be always updated on market situations, including past transaction information and reliable projections. You could review and examine comparable homes that are currently available in the market, especially these which have been sold or not bought up to now six months. You'll be able to see a pattern of such report by clicking here It's essential to defend yourself in opposition to unscrupulous patrons. They are often very skilled in using highly unethical and manipulative techniques to try and lure you into a lure. That you must also protect your self, your loved ones, and personal belongings as you'll be serving many strangers in your home. Sign a listing itemizing of all of the objects provided by the proprietor, together with their situation. HSR Prime Recruiter 2010.
  21. ↑ Template:Cite web
  22. ↑ Many property agents need to declare for the PIC grant in Singapore. However, not all of them know find out how to do the correct process for getting this PIC scheme from the IRAS. There are a number of steps that you need to do before your software can be approved.

    Naturally, you will have to pay a safety deposit and that is usually one month rent for annually of the settlement. That is the place your good religion deposit will likely be taken into account and will kind part or all of your security deposit. Anticipate to have a proportionate amount deducted out of your deposit if something is discovered to be damaged if you move out. It's best to you'll want to test the inventory drawn up by the owner, which can detail all objects in the property and their condition. If you happen to fail to notice any harm not already mentioned within the inventory before transferring in, you danger having to pay for it yourself.

    In case you are in search of an actual estate or Singapore property agent on-line, you simply should belief your intuition. It's because you do not know which agent is nice and which agent will not be. Carry out research on several brokers by looking out the internet. As soon as if you end up positive that a selected agent is dependable and reliable, you can choose to utilize his partnerise in finding you a home in Singapore. Most of the time, a property agent is taken into account to be good if he or she locations the contact data on his website. This may mean that the agent does not mind you calling them and asking them any questions relating to new properties in singapore in Singapore. After chatting with them you too can see them in their office after taking an appointment.

    Have handed an trade examination i.e Widespread Examination for House Brokers (CEHA) or Actual Property Agency (REA) examination, or equal; Exclusive brokers are extra keen to share listing information thus making certain the widest doable coverage inside the real estate community via Multiple Listings and Networking. Accepting a severe provide is simpler since your agent is totally conscious of all advertising activity related with your property. This reduces your having to check with a number of agents for some other offers. Price control is easily achieved. Paint work in good restore-discuss with your Property Marketing consultant if main works are still to be done. Softening in residential property prices proceed, led by 2.8 per cent decline within the index for Remainder of Central Region

    Once you place down the one per cent choice price to carry down a non-public property, it's important to accept its situation as it is whenever you move in – faulty air-con, choked rest room and all. Get round this by asking your agent to incorporate a ultimate inspection clause within the possibility-to-buy letter. HDB flat patrons routinely take pleasure in this security net. "There's a ultimate inspection of the property two days before the completion of all HDB transactions. If the air-con is defective, you can request the seller to repair it," says Kelvin.

    15.6.1 As the agent is an intermediary, generally, as soon as the principal and third party are introduced right into a contractual relationship, the agent drops out of the image, subject to any problems with remuneration or indemnification that he could have against the principal, and extra exceptionally, against the third occasion. Generally, agents are entitled to be indemnified for all liabilities reasonably incurred within the execution of the brokers´ authority.

    To achieve the very best outcomes, you must be always updated on market situations, including past transaction information and reliable projections. You could review and examine comparable homes that are currently available in the market, especially these which have been sold or not bought up to now six months. You'll be able to see a pattern of such report by clicking here It's essential to defend yourself in opposition to unscrupulous patrons. They are often very skilled in using highly unethical and manipulative techniques to try and lure you into a lure. That you must also protect your self, your loved ones, and personal belongings as you'll be serving many strangers in your home. Sign a listing itemizing of all of the objects provided by the proprietor, together with their situation. HSR Prime Recruiter 2010.
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