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| | The hardest part about choosing a cost-free marketing tool website templates for your own store isn't knowing how it will fare with regards to conversion. After all, for online merchant your purpose is to sell, sell, sell.<br><br> |
| The '''Modigliani–Miller theorem''' (of [[Franco Modigliani]], [[Merton Miller]]) is a theorem on capital structure, arguably forming the basis for modern thinking on [[capital structure]]. The basic theorem states that, under a certain market price process (the classical [[random walk]]), in the absence of [[tax]]es, [[bankruptcy]] costs, agency costs, and [[asymmetric information]], and in an [[efficient market]], the value of a firm is unaffected by how that firm is financed.<ref>MIT Sloan Lecture Notes, Finance Theory II, Dirk Jenter, 2003</ref> It does not matter if the firm's capital is raised by issuing [[stock]] or selling debt. It does not matter what the firm's [[dividend policy]] is. Therefore, the Modigliani–Miller theorem is also often called the '''capital structure irrelevance principle'''. | |
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| Modigliani was awarded the [[Nobel Prize in Economics#Laureates|1985 Nobel Prize in Economics]] for this and other contributions.
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| Miller was a professor at the [[University of Chicago]] when he was awarded the 1990 Nobel Prize in Economics, along with [[Harry Markowitz]] and [[William Forsyth Sharpe|William Sharpe]], for their "work in the theory of financial economics," with Miller specifically cited for "fundamental contributions to the theory of corporate finance."
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| ==Historical background==
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| Miller and Modigliani derived the theorem and wrote their groundbreaking article when they were both professors at the [[Tepper School of Business|Graduate School of Industrial Administration (GSIA)]] of [[Carnegie Mellon University]]. The story goes that Miller and Modigliani were set to teach corporate finance for business students despite the fact that they had no prior experience in corporate finance. When they read the material that existed they found it inconsistent so they sat down together to try to figure it out. The result of this was the article in the ''American Economic Review'' and what has later been known as the M&M theorem.
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| Miller and Modigliani published a number of follow-up papers discussing some of these issues. The theorem was first proposed by F. Modigliani and M. Miller in 1958.
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| ==The theorem==
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| Consider two firms which are identical except for their financial structures. The first (Firm U) is '''unlevered''': that is, it is financed by '''equity''' only. The other (Firm L) is levered: it is financed partly by equity, and partly by debt. The Modigliani–Miller theorem states that the value of the two firms is the same.
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| ==Without taxes==
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| ===Proposition I===
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| <math>V_U = V_L \,</math> | |
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| where
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| <math>V_U</math> ''is the value of an unlevered firm'' = price of buying a firm composed only of equity, and <math>V_L</math> ''is the value of a levered firm'' = price of buying a firm that is composed of some mix of debt and equity. Another word for levered is ''geared'', which has the same meaning.<ref>Arnold G. (2007)</ref> | |
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| To see why this should be true, suppose an investor is considering buying one of the two firms U or L. Instead of purchasing the shares of the levered firm L, he could purchase the shares of firm U and borrow the same amount of money B that firm L does. The eventual returns to either of these investments would be the same. Therefore the price of L must be the same as the price of U minus the money borrowed B, which is the value of L's debt.
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| This discussion also clarifies the role of some of the theorem's assumptions. We have implicitly assumed that the [[investor]]'s cost of borrowing money is the same as that of the firm, which need not be true in the presence of asymmetric information, in the absence of efficient markets, or if the investor has a different risk profile than the firm.
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| ===Proposition II===
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| [[Image:MM2.png|frame|right|Proposition II with risky debt. As [[leverage (finance)|leverage]] ([[Debt to equity ratio|D/E]]) increases, the [[weighted average cost of capital|WACC]] (k0) stays constant.]]
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| :<math>r_E = r_0 + \frac{D}{E}(r_0 - r_D)</math>
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| where
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| * <math>r_E</math> ''is the required rate of return on equity, or [[cost of equity]].''
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| * <math>r_0</math> ''is the company unlevered [[cost of capital]] (ie assume no leverage).''
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| * <math>r_D</math> ''is the required rate of return on borrowings, or [[cost of debt]].''
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| * <math>\frac{D}{E}</math> ''is the [[debt-to-equity ratio]].''
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| A higher debt-to-equity ratio leads to a higher required return on equity, because of the higher risk involved for equity-holders in a company with debt. The formula is derived from the theory of [[weighted average cost of capital]] (WACC).
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| These propositions are true under the following assumptions:
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| * no transaction costs exist, and
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| * individuals and corporations borrow at the same rates.
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| These results might seem irrelevant (after all, none of the conditions are met in the real world), but the theorem is still taught and studied because it tells something very important. That is, [[capital structure]] matters precisely because one or more of these assumptions is violated. It tells where to look for determinants of optimal capital structure and how those factors might affect optimal capital structure.
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| ==With taxes==
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| ===Proposition I===
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| :<math>V_L =V_U + T_C D\,</math>
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| where
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| * <math>V_L</math> ''is the value of a levered firm.''
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| * <math>V_U</math> ''is the value of an unlevered firm.''
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| * <math>T_C D</math> ''is the tax rate (<math>T_C</math>) x the value of debt (D)''
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| * the term <math>T_C D</math> assumes debt is perpetual
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| This means that there are advantages for firms to be levered, since corporations can deduct interest payments. Therefore leverage lowers [[tax]] payments. [[Dividend]] payments are non-deductible.
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| ===Proposition II===
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| :<math>r_E = r_0 + \frac{D}{E}(r_0 - r_D)(1-T_C)</math>
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| where:
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| * <math>r_E</math> ''is the required rate of return on equity, or cost of levered equity = unlevered equity + financing premium.''
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| * <math>r_0</math> ''is the company cost of equity capital with no leverage (unlevered cost of equity, or return on assets with D/E = 0).''
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| * <math>r_D</math> ''is the required rate of return on borrowings, or [[cost of debt]].''
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| * <math>{D}/{E}</math> ''is the debt-to-equity ratio.''
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| * <math>T_c</math> ''is the tax rate.''
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| The same relationship as earlier described stating that the cost of equity rises with leverage, because the risk to equity rises, still holds. The formula, however, has implications for the difference with the [[Weighted average cost of capital|WACC]]. Their second attempt on capital structure included taxes has identified that as the level of gearing increases by replacing equity with cheap debt the level of the WACC drops and an optimal capital structure does indeed exist at a point where debt is 100%.
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| The following assumptions are made in the propositions with taxes:
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| * corporations are taxed at the rate <math>T_C</math> on earnings after interest,
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| * no transaction costs exist, and
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| * individuals and corporations borrow at the same rate.
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| ==Notes==
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| {{Reflist}}
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| ==Further reading==
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| {{More footnotes|date=March 2009}}
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| *{{cite book |title=Principles of Corporate Finance |last=Brealey |first=Richard A. |authorlink= |coauthors=Myers, Stewart C. |year=2008 |edition=9th |origyear=1981 |publisher=McGraw-Hill/Irwin |location=Boston |isbn=978-0-07-340510-0 |pages= }}
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| *{{cite book |title=The Quest for Value: The EVA management guide |last=Stewart |first=G. Bennett |authorlink= |coauthors= |year=1991 |publisher=HarperBusiness |location=New York |isbn=0-88730-418-4 |pages= }}
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| *{{cite journal | last = Modigliani | first = F. | authorlink = | coauthors = Miller, M. | year = 1958 | month = | title = The Cost of Capital, Corporation Finance and the Theory of Investment | journal = American Economic Review | volume = 48 | issue = 3 | pages = 261–297 | doi = | jstor = 1809766 | accessdate = | quote = }}
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| *{{cite journal | last = Modigliani | first = F. | authorlink = | coauthors = Miller, M. | year = 1963 | month = | title = Corporate income taxes and the cost of capital: a correction | journal = American Economic Review | volume = 53 | issue = 3 | pages = 433–443 | doi = | jstor = 1809167 | accessdate = | quote = }}
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| *{{cite journal | last = Miles | first = J. | authorlink = | coauthors = Ezzell, J. | year = 1980 | month = | title = The weighted average cost of capital, perfect capital markets and project life: a clarification | journal = Journal of Financial and Quantitative Analysis | volume = 15 | issue = | pages = 719–730 | id = | jstor = 2330405 | accessdate = | quote =| doi =10.2307/2330405 }}
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| ==External links==
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| * [http://rdcohen.50megs.com/MMabstract.htm Ruben D Cohen: An Implication of the Modigliani-Miller Capital Structuring Theorems on the Relation between Equity and Debt]
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| {{corporate finance and investment banking}}
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| {{DEFAULTSORT:Modigliani-Miller Theorem}}
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| [[Category:Capital (economics)]]
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| [[Category:Economics theorems]]
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| [[Category:Financial economics]]
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The hardest part about choosing a cost-free marketing tool website templates for your own store isn't knowing how it will fare with regards to conversion. After all, for online merchant your purpose is to sell, sell, sell.
Your child may n't want to curl up. They may not want to be touched unless however playing around. This is unusual in children and can be looked at if that is the case.
If you'd like to opt a long Nile river cruise, a person definitely might to help pick your travel dates in period from October to May. In this time frame, the river is not locked any kind of time point as well as can travel the whole length. Choosing the narrower "Nile feluccas" will allow to have a cheap holiday and an adventurous one.
Procter and Gamble end up being the worlds largest advertiser. They own an important portfolio of food brands, and they understand how important it will be get their message during. When they opt to introduce an innovative new product to the market just consider it a generic name. They could have opted to call "Duracell "Proctor and Gamble Batteries", having said that they didn't. They did not because they recognize the importance that common history and picture of their products has on perception as well as the likelihood that somebody is likely to buy many.
If the housing, education, medical and transport baskets are excluded from associated with of living calculation, then Luanda ranks first with Zurich and Geneva, in second and third, placing Tokyo simply because the fifth most expensive place to call home and Hong Kong 108th. Tokyo drops dramatically in ranking when the most expensive basket group - housing is removed, making it overall a substantially cheaper expatriate prospect when housing is supplied by the business. Luanda is particularly expensive for clothing, groceries, recreation and culture, and restaurants and meals on the market. A pair of branded men's jeans costs approximately $113, a 1L full cream milk $2.93, a cinema ticket for 1 adult $13.17, a cappuccino $4.37 and possibly a burger meal from a global franchise is $13.82.
A painter or a photographer uses his fantasy to generate something personalised. A painter uses brush whereas a photographer uses a camera. As along while brush, a performer also uses colors similarly along using a camera a photographer uses green screen technique to produce something that never existed.
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