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| '''Superparamagnetism''' is a form of [[magnetism]], which appears in small [[ferromagnetic]] or [[ferrimagnetic]] [[nanoparticles]]. In sufficiently small nanoparticles, magnetization can randomly flip direction under the influence of temperature. The typical time between two flips is called the [[Néel relaxation theory|Néel relaxation time]]. In the absence of external magnetic field, when the time used to measure the magnetization of the nanoparticles is much longer than the ''Néel relaxation time'', their magnetization appears to be in average zero: they are said to be in the superparamagnetic state. In this state, an external magnetic field is able to magnetize the nanoparticles, similarly to a [[paramagnet]]. However, their [[magnetic susceptibility]] is much larger than the one of paramagnets. | | This is a preview for the new '''MathML rendering mode''' (with SVG fallback), which is availble in production for registered users. |
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| == The Néel relaxation in the absence of magnetic field ==
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| {{Main|Néel relaxation theory}}
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| Normally, any ferromagnetic or ferrimagnetic material undergoes a transition to a paramagnetic state above its [[Curie temperature]]. Superparamagnetism is different from this standard transition since it occurs below the Curie temperature of the material.
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| Superparamagnetism occurs in nanoparticles which are [[single domain (magnetic)|single-domain]], i.e. composed of a single [[magnetic domain]]. This is possible when their diameter is below 3–50 nm, depending on the materials. In this condition, it is considered that the magnetization of the nanoparticles is a single giant magnetic moment, sum of all the individual magnetic moments carried by the atoms of the nanoparticle. Those in the field of superparamagnetism call this “macro-spin approximation”.
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| Because of the nanoparticle’s [[magnetic anisotropy]], the magnetic moment has usually only two stable orientations antiparallel to each other, separated by an [[energy barrier]]. The stable orientations define the nanoparticle’s so called “easy axis”. At finite temperature, there is a finite probability for the magnetization to flip and reverse its direction. The mean time between two flips is called the Néel relaxation time <math>\tau_N</math> and is given by the following Néel-Arrhenius equation:<ref name=Neel49>{{cite article|first=L. |last=Néel|title=Théorie du traînage magnétique des ferromagnétiques en grains fins avec applications aux terres cuites|journal=Ann. Géophys|volume=5|pages=99–136|year=1949}} (in French; an English translation is available in {{cite article|title=Selected Works of Louis Néel|editor-first=N.|editor-last=Kurti|publisher=Gordon and Breach|year=1988|isbn=2-88124-300-2|pages=407–427}}).</ref>
| | '''MathML''' |
| | :<math forcemathmode="mathml">E=mc^2</math> |
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| :<math>\tau_N = \tau_0 \exp \left(\frac{K V}{k_B T}\right)</math>, | | <!--'''PNG''' (currently default in production) |
| | :<math forcemathmode="png">E=mc^2</math> |
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| where:
| | '''source''' |
| *<math>\tau_N</math> is thus the average length of time that it takes for the nanoparticle’s magnetization to randomly flip as a result of [[thermal fluctuations]].
| | :<math forcemathmode="source">E=mc^2</math> --> |
| *<math>\tau_0</math> is a length of time, characteristic of the material, called the ''attempt time'' or ''attempt period'' (its reciprocal is called the ''attempt frequency''); its typical value is 10<sup>−9</sup>–10<sup>−10</sup> second.
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| *''K'' is the nanoparticle’s magnetic anisotropy energy density and ''V'' its volume. ''KV'' is therefore the [[energy barrier]] associated with the magnetization moving from its initial easy axis direction, through a “hard plane”, to the other easy axis direction.
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| *k<sub>B</sub> is the [[Boltzmann constant]].
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| *''T'' is the temperature.
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| This length of time can be anywhere from a few nanoseconds to years or much longer. In particular, it can be seen that the Néel relaxation time is an exponential function of the grain volume, which explains why the flipping probability becomes rapidly negligible for bulk materials or large nanoparticles.
| | <span style="color: red">Follow this [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:Preferences#mw-prefsection-rendering link] to change your Math rendering settings.</span> You can also add a [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:Preferences#mw-prefsection-rendering-skin Custom CSS] to force the MathML/SVG rendering or select different font families. See [https://www.mediawiki.org/wiki/Extension:Math#CSS_for_the_MathML_with_SVG_fallback_mode these examples]. |
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| === Blocking temperature === | | ==Demos== |
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| Let us imagine that the magnetization of a single superparamagnetic nanoparticle is measured and let us define <math>\tau_m</math> as the measurement time. If <math>\tau_m \gg \tau_N</math>, the nanoparticle magnetization will flip several times during the measurement, then the measured magnetization will average to zero. If <math>\tau_m \ll \tau_N</math>, the magnetization will not flip during the measurement, so the measured magnetization will be what the instantaneous magnetization was at the beginning of the measurement. In the former case, the nanoparticle will appear to be in the superparamagnetic state whereas in the latter case it will appear to be “blocked” in its initial state. '''The state of the nanoparticle (superparamagnetic or blocked) depends on the measurement time.''' A transition between superparamagnetism and blocked state occurs when <math>\tau_m = \tau_N</math>. In several experiments, the measurement time is kept constant but the temperature is varied, so the transition between superparamagnetism and blocked state is seen as a function of the temperature. The temperature for which <math>\tau_m = \tau_N</math> is called the '''blocking temperature''':
| | Here are some [https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:ListFiles/Frederic.wang demos]: |
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| :<math>T_B = \frac{K V}{k_B \ln \left(\frac{\tau_m}{\tau_0}\right)}</math>
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| For typical laboratory measurements, the value of the logarithm in the previous equation is in the order of 20–25.
| | * accessibility: |
| | ** Safari + VoiceOver: [https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:VoiceOver-Mac-Safari.ogv video only], [[File:Voiceover-mathml-example-1.wav|thumb|Voiceover-mathml-example-1]], [[File:Voiceover-mathml-example-2.wav|thumb|Voiceover-mathml-example-2]], [[File:Voiceover-mathml-example-3.wav|thumb|Voiceover-mathml-example-3]], [[File:Voiceover-mathml-example-4.wav|thumb|Voiceover-mathml-example-4]], [[File:Voiceover-mathml-example-5.wav|thumb|Voiceover-mathml-example-5]], [[File:Voiceover-mathml-example-6.wav|thumb|Voiceover-mathml-example-6]], [[File:Voiceover-mathml-example-7.wav|thumb|Voiceover-mathml-example-7]] |
| | ** [https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:MathPlayer-Audio-Windows7-InternetExplorer.ogg Internet Explorer + MathPlayer (audio)] |
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| | ** Orca: There is ongoing work, but no support at all at the moment [[File:Orca-mathml-example-1.wav|thumb|Orca-mathml-example-1]], [[File:Orca-mathml-example-2.wav|thumb|Orca-mathml-example-2]], [[File:Orca-mathml-example-3.wav|thumb|Orca-mathml-example-3]], [[File:Orca-mathml-example-4.wav|thumb|Orca-mathml-example-4]], [[File:Orca-mathml-example-5.wav|thumb|Orca-mathml-example-5]], [[File:Orca-mathml-example-6.wav|thumb|Orca-mathml-example-6]], [[File:Orca-mathml-example-7.wav|thumb|Orca-mathml-example-7]]. |
| | ** From our testing, ChromeVox and JAWS are not able to read the formulas generated by the MathML mode. |
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| == Effect of a magnetic field == | | ==Test pages == |
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| [[Image:Langevin function.png|300px|thumb|right|Langevin function (red line), compared with <math>\tanh(x/3)</math> (blue line).]] | | To test the '''MathML''', '''PNG''', and '''source''' rendering modes, please go to one of the following test pages: |
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| When an external magnetic field is applied to an assembly of superparamagnetic nanoparticles, their magnetic moments tend to align along the applied field, leading to a net magnetization. The magnetization curve of the assembly, i.e. the magnetization as a function of the applied field, is a reversible S-shaped [[increasing function]]. This function is quite complicated but for some simple cases:
| | *[[Inputtypes|Inputtypes (private Wikis only)]] |
| # If all the particles are identical (same energy barrier and same magnetic moment), their easy axes are all oriented parallel to the applied field and the temperature is low enough (''T<sub>B</sub> < T ≲ KV/(10 k<sub>B</sub>)''), then the magnetization of the assembly is<br/><math>M(H) \approx n \mu \tanh\left(\frac{\mu_0 H \mu}{k_B T}\right)</math>.
| | *[[Url2Image|Url2Image (private Wikis only)]] |
| # If all the particles are identical and the temperature is high enough (''T ≳ KV/k<sub>B</sub>''), then, irrespective of the orientations of the easy axes:<br/><math>M(H) \approx n \mu L\left(\frac{\mu_0 H \mu}{k_B T}\right)</math>
| | ==Bug reporting== |
| In the above equations:
| | If you find any bugs, please report them at [https://bugzilla.wikimedia.org/enter_bug.cgi?product=MediaWiki%20extensions&component=Math&version=master&short_desc=Math-preview%20rendering%20problem Bugzilla], or write an email to math_bugs (at) ckurs (dot) de . |
| * ''n'' in the density of nanoparticles in the sample
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| * <math>\mu_0</math> is the [[magnetic permeability]] of vacuum | |
| * <math>\mu</math> is the magnetic moment of a nanoparticle
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| * <math>L(x) = 1/\tanh(x) - 1/x</math> is the [[Langevin function]]
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| The initial slope of the <math>M(H)</math> function is the magnetic susceptibility of the sample <math>\chi</math>:
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| :<math>\chi = \frac{n \mu_0 \mu^2}{k_BT}</math> in the first case
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| :<math>\chi = \frac{n \mu_0 \mu^2}{3k_BT}</math> in the second case.
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| The later susceptibility is also valid for all temperatures <math>T > T_B</math> if the easy axes of the nanoparticles are randomly oriented.
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| It can be seen from these equations that large nanoparticles have a larger ''µ'' and so a larger susceptibility. This explains why superparamagnetic nanoparticles have a much larger susceptibility than standard paramagnets: they behave exactly as a paramagnet with a huge magnetic moment.
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| === Time dependence of the magnetization ===
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| There is no time-dependence of the magnetization when the nanoparticles are either completely blocked (<math>T \ll T_B</math>) or completely superparamagnetic (<math>T \gg T_B</math>). There is, however, a narrow window around <math>T_B</math> where the measurement time and the relaxation time have comparable magnitude. In this case, a frequency-dependence of the susceptibility can be observed. For a randomly oriented sample, the complex susceptibility<ref>{{cite journal |url=http://link.aps.org/doi/10.1103/PhysRevB.9.3891 |title=Superparamagnetism and relaxation effects in granular Ni-SiO<sub>2</sub> and Ni-Al<sub>2</sub>O<sub>3</sub> films |first1=J. I. |last1=Gittleman |first2=B. |last2=Abeles |first3=S. |last3=Bozowski |journal=[[Physical Review B]] |volume=9 |pages=3891–3897 |year=1974 |doi=10.1103/PhysRevB.9.3891|bibcode = 1974PhRvB...9.3891G }}</ref> is:
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| :<math>\chi(\omega) = \frac{\chi_{sp} + i \omega \tau \chi_b}{1 + i \omega \tau}</math>
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| where
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| * <math>\tfrac{\omega}{2\pi}</math> is the frequency of the applied field
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| * <math>\chi_{sp} = \tfrac{n \mu_0 \mu^2}{3k_BT}</math> is the susceptibility in the superparamagnetic state
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| * <math>\chi_b = \tfrac{n \mu_0 \mu^2}{3KV}</math> is the susceptibility in the blocked state
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| * <math>\tau = \tfrac{\tau_N}{2}</math> is the relaxation time of the assembly | |
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| From this frequency-dependent susceptibility, the time-dependence of the magnetization for low-fields can be derived:
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| :<math>\tau \frac{\mathrm{d}M}{\mathrm{d}t} + M = \tau \chi_b \frac{\mathrm{d}H}{\mathrm{d}t} + \chi_{sp} H</math>
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| ==Measurements==
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| A superparamagnetic system can be measured with [[magnetic susceptibility|AC susceptibility]] measurements, where an applied magnetic field varies in time, and the magnetic response of the system is measured. A superparamagnetic system will show a characteristic frequency dependence: When the frequency is much higher than 1/τ<sub>N</sub>, there will be a different magnetic response than when the frequency is much lower than 1/τ<sub>N</sub>, since in the latter case, but not the former, the ferromagnetic clusters will have time to respond to the field by flipping their magnetization.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.qdusa.com/resources/pdf/1078-201.pdf |format=pdf |last1=Martien |first1=Dinesh |title=Introduction to: AC susceptibility |publisher=Quantum Design |accessdate=September 2011}}</ref> The precise dependence can be calculated from the Néel-Arrhenius equation, assuming that the neighboring clusters behave independently of one another (if clusters interact, their behavior becomes more complicated). It is also possible to perform magneto-optical AC susceptibility measurements with magneto-optically active superparamagnetic materials such as iron oxide nanoparticles in the visible wavelength range.<ref>{{cite journal |doi=10.1063/1.4801837|last1=Vandendriessche |first1=Stefaan et al. |title=Magneto-optical harmonic susceptometry of superparamagnetic materials|journal=Applied Physics Letters|volume=102|number=16|pages=161903-5}}</ref>
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| ==Effect on hard drives==
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| Superparamagnetism sets a limit on the storage density of [[hard disk drive]]s due to the minimum size of particles that can be used. This limit is known as the '''superparamagnetic limit'''.
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| * Older hard disk technology uses [[longitudinal recording]]. It has an estimated limit of 100 to 200 Gbit/in²<ref>{{cite conference |last1=Kryder |first1=M. H. |title=Magnetic recording beyond the superparamagnetic limit |work=Magnetics Conference, 2000. INTERMAG 2000 Digest of Technical Papers. 2000 IEEE International |page=575 |doi=10.1109/INTMAG.2000.872350}}</ref>
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| * Current hard disk technology uses [[perpendicular recording]]. {{As of|2010|8}} drives with densities of 667Gb/in<sup>2</sup> are available commercially. Perpendicular recording is predicted to allow information densities of up to around 1 Tbit/in² (1024 Gbit/in²).<ref>{{cite press release |title=Hitachi achieves nanotechnology milestone for quadrupling terabyte hard drive |publisher=[[Hitachi]] |date=October 15, 2007 |url= http://www.hitachi.com/New/cnews/071015a.html |format= |language= |trans_title= |accessdate=September 2011 |archiveurl= |archivedate= |quote= |ref= }}</ref>
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| * Future hard disk technologies currently in development include: [[heat-assisted magnetic recording]] (HAMR), which use materials that are stable at much smaller sizes. They require heating before the magnetic orientation of a bit can be changed; and [[bit-patterned recording]] (BPR).<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.pcmag.com/article2/0,2817,2368023,00.asp |title=Will Toshiba's Bit-Patterned Drives Change the HDD Landscape? |last1=Murray |first1=Matthew |publisher=[[PC Magazine]] |date=2010-08-19 |accessdate=2010-08-21}}</ref>
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| ==Applications of superparamagnetism==
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| ===General Applications===
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| *[[Ferrofluid]]: tunable viscosity
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| ===Biomedical applications===
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| * Imaging: [[Contrast agents]] in [[Magnetic Resonance Imaging]] (MRI)
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| * Magnetic separation: cell-, DNA-, protein- separation, RNA fishing
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| * Treatments: [[targeted drug delivery]], [[magnetic hyperthermia]], [[magnetofection]]
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| ==See also==
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| *[[Single-molecule magnet]]
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| *[[Iron oxide nanoparticles]]
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| ==References==
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| {{reflist}}
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| {{Refbegin}}
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| *{{cite journal |first1=L. |last1=Néel |url=http://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/docs/00/23/42/17/PDF/ajp-jphysrad_1950_11_2_49_0.pdf |title=Théorie du traînage magnétique des ferromagnétiques en grains fins avec applications aux terres cuites |journal=Ann. Géophys. |volume=5 |pages=99–136 |year=1949 |language=French}} An English translation is available in {{cite book|title=Selected Works of Louis Néel |editor1-first=N. |editor1-last=Kurti |publisher=Gordon and Breach |location=New York |year=1988 |isbn=2-88124-300-2 |pages=407–427}}
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| *{{cite journal |first1=D. |last1=Weller |first2=A. |last2=Moser |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1109/20.809134 |title=Thermal Effect Limits in Ultrahigh Density Magnetic Recording |journal= [[IEEE Transactions on Magnetics]] |volume=35 |pages=4423–4439 |year=1999 |doi=10.1109/20.809134|bibcode = 1999ITM....35.4423W }}
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| {{Refend}}
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| ==External links==
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| * [http://www.mff.cuni.cz/veda/konference/wds/contents/pdf05/WDS05_090_f3_Vejpravova.pdf Superparamagnetism of Co-Ferrite Nanoparticles]
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| * [http://lmis1.epfl.ch/webdav/site/lmis1/shared/Files/Lectures/Nanotechnology%20for%20engineers/Archives/2004_05/Superparamagnetism.pdf Powerpoint presentation on Superparamagnetism in pdf]
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| {{magnetic states}}
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| [[Category:Magnetic ordering]]
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| [[Category:Statistical mechanics]]
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