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{{PIE notice}}
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'''[[Nominal]]s in the [[Proto-Indo-European language]]''' (PIE) include [[noun]]s, [[adjective]]s and [[pronoun]]s. Their [[morphology (linguistics)|morphology]] and [[semantics]] have been reconstructed by modern linguists based on similarities found across all [[Indo-European languages]]. This article discusses nouns and adjectives, while [[Proto-Indo-European pronouns]] are treated elsewhere.
 
==Introduction==
 
The following table shows some example declensions of Proto-Indo-European (PIE) nouns, based on the reconstruction of Ringe (2006).<ref name="Ringe 2006 47–50">{{Harvcoltxt|Ringe|2006|pp=47–50}}</ref>
 
{| cellspacing="0" cellpadding="0" class="wikitable"
! rowspan=3 colspan="2" |
! colspan=6|Athematic
! colspan=2|Thematic
|-
! rowspan=2|acrostatic root noun
! rowspan=2|hysterokinetic r-stem
! rowspan=2|proterokinetic ti-stem
! rowspan=2|proterokinetic neuter u-stem
! colspan=2|eh₂-stem (ā-stem)
! rowspan=2|o-stem
! rowspan=2|neuter o-stem
|-
! PIE
! Post-PIE<sup>1</sup>
|-
! colspan="2"| [[gloss (annotation)|gloss]]
| night (f.)
| father (m.)
| thought (f.)
| tree (n.)
| colspan=2 style="text-align: center;" |grain (f.)
| nest (m.)
| work (n.)
|-
! rowspan="8" | sing.
! nom.
| {{PIE|*nókʷt-s}}
| {{PIE|*ph₂t-ḗr}}
| {{PIE|*mént-i-s}}
| rowspan=3|{{PIE|*dór-u}}
| {{PIE|*dʰoHn-éh₂}}
| {{PIE|*dʰō̬n-ā̬́}}
| {{PIE|*nisd-ó-s}}
| rowspan=3|{{PIE|*wérǵ-o-m}}
|-
! voc.
| {{PIE|*nókʷt}}
| {{PIE|*ph₂t-ér}}
| {{PIE|*mént-i}}
| {{PIE|*dʰoHn-[á]}}<sup>2</sup>
| {{PIE|*dʰō̬n-á}}
| {{PIE|*nisd-é}}
|-
! acc.
| {{PIE|*nókʷt-m̥}}
| {{PIE|*ph₂t-ér-m̥}}
| {{PIE|*mént-i-m}}
| {{PIE|*dʰoHn-éh₂-m (-ā́-m)}}
| {{PIE|*dʰō̬n-ā̬́-m}}
| {{PIE|*nisd-ó-m}}
|-
! inst.
| {{PIE|*nékʷt-(e)h₁}}
| {{PIE|*ph₂t-r̥-éh₁}}
| {{PIE|*mn̥t-í-h₁}}
| {{PIE|*dr-ú-h₁}}
| {{PIE|*dʰoHn-éh₂-(e)h₁}}
| {{PIE|*dʰō̬n-ā̬́?}}
| {{PIE|*nisd-ó-h₁}}
| {{PIE|*wérǵ-o-h₁}}
|-
! dat.
| {{PIE|*nékʷt-ey}}
| {{PIE|*ph₂t-r̥-éy}}
| {{PIE|*mn̥t-éy-ey}}
| {{PIE|*dr-éw-ey}}
| {{PIE|*dʰoHn-éh₂-ey}}
| {{PIE|*dʰō̬n-ā̬́-y}}
| {{PIE|*nisd-ó-ey}}
| {{PIE|*wérǵ-o-ey}}
|-
! abl.
| {{PIE|*nékʷt-s}}
| {{PIE|*ph₂t-r̥-és}}
| {{PIE|*mn̥t-éy-s}}
| {{PIE|*dr-éw-s}}
| {{PIE|*dʰoHn-éh₂-s}}
| {{PIE|*dʰō̬n-ā̬́-s}}
| {{PIE|*nisd-é-ad}}
| {{PIE|*wérǵ-e-ad}}
|-
! gen.
| {{PIE|*nékʷt-s}}
| {{PIE|*ph₂t-r̥-és}}
| {{PIE|*mn̥t-éy-s}}
| {{PIE|*dr-éw-s}}
| {{PIE|*dʰoHn-éh₂-s}}
| {{PIE|*dʰō̬n-ā̬́-s}}
| {{PIE|*nisd-ó-syo}}
| {{PIE|*wérǵ-o-syo}}
|-
! loc.
| {{PIE|*nékʷt-(i)}}
| {{PIE|*ph₂t-ér-(i)}}
| {{PIE|*mn̥t-éy (-ēy)}}
| {{PIE|*dr-éw-(i)}}
| {{PIE|*dʰoHn-éh₂-(i)}}
| {{PIE|*dʰō̬n-á̬-y}}
| {{PIE|*nisd-é-y}}
| {{PIE|*wérǵ-e-y}}
|-
! dual
! nom.-voc.-acc.
| {{PIE|*nókʷt-h₁e}}
| {{PIE|*ph₂t-ér-h₁e}}
| {{PIE|*mént-i-h₁}}
| {{PIE|*dór-w-ih₁}}
| ?
| ?
| {{PIE|*nisd-ó-h₁}}
| {{PIE|*wérǵ-o-y(h₁)}}
|-
! rowspan="6" | plur.
! n.-v.
| {{PIE|*nókʷt-es}}
| {{PIE|*ph₂t-ér-es}}
| {{PIE|*mént-ey-es}}
| rowspan=2|{{PIE|*dór-u-h₂}}
| {{PIE|*dʰoHn-éh₂-es}}
| {{PIE|*dʰō̬n-ā̬́-s}}
| {{PIE|*nisd-ó-es}}
| rowspan=2|{{PIE|*wérǵ-e-h₂}}
|-
! acc.
| {{PIE|*nókʷt-n̥s}}
| {{PIE|*ph₂t-ér-n̥s}}
| {{PIE|*mént-i-ns}}
| {{PIE|*dʰoHn-éh₂-ns (-ās)}}
| {{PIE|*dʰō̬n-ā̬́-s}}
| {{PIE|*nisd-ó-ns}}
|-
! inst.
| {{PIE|*nékʷt-bʰi}}
| {{PIE|*ph₂t-r̥-bʰí}}
| {{PIE|*mn̥t-í-bʰi}}
| {{PIE|*dr-ú-bʰi}}
| {{PIE|*dʰoHn-éh₂-bʰi}}
| {{PIE|*dʰō̬n-ā̬́-bʰi}}
| {{PIE|*nisd-ṓ-ys}}
| {{PIE|*wérǵ-ō-ys}}
|-
! dat.-abl.
| {{PIE|*nékʷt-m̥os}}
| {{PIE|*ph₂t-r̥-mós}}
| {{PIE|*mn̥t-í-mos}}
| {{PIE|*dr-ú-mos}}
| {{PIE|*dʰoHn-éh₂-mos}}
| {{PIE|*dʰō̬n-ā̬́-mos}}
| {{PIE|*nisd-ó-(y)mos}}
| {{PIE|*wérǵ-o-(y)mos}}
|-
! gen.
| {{PIE|*nékʷt-oHom}}
| {{PIE|*ph₂t-r̥-óHom}}
| {{PIE|*mn̥t-éy-oHom}}
| {{PIE|*dr-éw-oHom}}
| {{PIE|*dʰoHn-éh₂-oHom}}
| {{PIE|*dʰō̬n-á̬-ō̬m}}
| {{PIE|*nisd-ó-oHom}}
| {{PIE|*wérǵ-o-oHom}}
|-
! loc.
| {{PIE|*nékʷt-su}}
| {{PIE|*ph₂t-r̥-sú}}
| {{PIE|*mn̥t-í-su}}
| {{PIE|*dr-ú-su}}
| {{PIE|*dʰoHn-éh₂-su}}
| {{PIE|*dʰō̬n-ā̬́-su}}
| {{PIE|*nisd-ó-ysu}}
| {{PIE|*wérǵ-o-ysu}}
|}
 
<sup>1</sup>Because of the large number of laryngeal consonants in this noun class, possible "Post-PIE" (non-[[Anatolian languages|Anatolian]]) forms are shown, after the loss of laryngeals. In reality, not all daughter languages developed in the same fashion. However, all but the [[Anatolian languages]] (e.g. [[Hittite language|Hittite]]) eventually lost the laryngeal consonants, and the developments were fairly similar across languages; as a result, the forms given are largely accurate.  The [[caron]] underneath vowels that were adjacent to laryngeals (e.g. *ō̬) is meant to indicate that in some languages (particularly the [[Balto-Slavic languages]]), these vowels maintained some property that distinguished them from non-laryngeal vowels.
<sup>2</sup>The ending was underlyingly *-éh₂, but laryngeals were deleted before a pause, leaving in this case a laryngeal-colored vowel {{IPA|[á]}}.
 
These tables demonstrate some of the most important properties of PIE nouns:
*There were eight cases and three genders.
*There were multiple declensions, distinguished both by the form of the stem added to the root (*-r-, *-n-, *-s-, *-u/w-, *-i/y-, *-eh₂-, etc.) and the position of the accent: ''acrostatic'' ("stationary on the root"), ''proterokinetic'' ("mobile, towards the front"), ''hysterokinetic'' ("mobile, towards the back"), ''amphikinetic'' ("mobile, towards both sides"). The last three accent classes were are ''mobile'', in that the accent could move around from one form to another within a paradigm.
*There were two large categories of declensions, ''athematic'' (with consonantal stems) and ''thematic'' (with a vocalic stem *-o/e-).
*There were different sets of endings in use. The largest difference is between the endings of athematic and thematic nouns, but neuter nouns also had separate endings in the merged nominative/vocative/accusative case.
*There was a complex system of ''ablaut'' (variation in vowel quality, between *e, *o, *ē, *ō and no vowel). This potentially occurred in all three of the root, stem and ending. The actual ablaut forms used depended on the stem class and accent class and were correlated with the position of the accent.
 
There were strong pressures early on to eliminate some of the complexities of this system, especially the ablaut variations in the root. For example, the ablaut variant {{PIE|*nékʷt-}} of {{PIE|*nókʷts}} "night" is found only in [[Hittite language|Hittite]]; evidently, root ablaut in this word was eliminated in favor of uniform {{PIE|*nókʷt-}} already in the proto-language, after the separation of the Anatolian languages. In the case of {{PIE|*méntis}} "thought", no daughter languages have root ablaut in this word, but some generalized the strong variant {{PIE|*ment-}} and some the weak variant {{PIE|*mn̥t-}} (cf. [[Gothic language|Gothic]] ''ana-minds'' "supposition" < {{PIE|*mentís}} vs. ''ga-munds'' "remembrance" < {{PIE|*mn̥tís}}).
 
==Morphology==
The basic morphological structure of Proto-Indo-European (PIE) nouns and adjectives is the same as that of [[PIE verb]]s.  A lexical word (as would appear in a dictionary) is formed by adding a ''suffix'' (<tt>S</tt>) onto a ''[[Proto-Indo-European root|root]]'' (<tt>R</tt>) to form a ''stem''.  The word is then [[Inflection|inflected]] by adding an ending (<tt>E</tt>) to a stem. The root indicates a basic concept (e.g. {{PIE|*''deh₃-''}} "give"), while the stem carries a more specific meaning based on the combination of root and suffix (e. g. {{PIE|*''déh₃-tor-''}} "giver", {{PIE|*''déh₃-o-''}} "gift").  The ending carries grammatical information, including [[grammatical case|case]], [[grammatical number|number]], and [[grammatical gender|gender]]. (The gender is an inherent property of a noun but is part of the inflection of an adjective, because it must agree with the gender of the noun it modifies.)
 
Thus, the general morphological form of such words is <tt>R+S+E</tt>.
 
<math>
\underbrace{\underbrace{\mathrm{root+suffix}}_{\mathrm{stem}} + \mathrm{ending}}_{\mathrm{word}}
</math>
 
The process of forming a lexical stem from a root is known in general as [[derivational morphology]], while the process of inflecting that stem is known as [[inflectional morphology]].  As elsewhere, the possible suffixes that can be added to a given root, and the meaning that results, are not entirely predictable, while the process of inflection is largely predictable in both form and meaning.
 
Extensive [[ablaut]] (vowel variation, between ''e'', ''o'', ''ē'', ''ō'' and no vowel) occurred in PIE, in both derivation and inflection and in the root, suffix, and ending.  Variation in the position of the PIE accent likewise occurs in both derivation and inflection, and is often considered part of the system of ablaut.  Originally, ablaut variations in all three of root, suffix and ending occurred between different inflections within a given paradigm.  For example, the nominative form ''*léimons'' "lake" (composed of root ''léi-'', suffix ''-mon-'' and ending ''-s'') co-occurred with the genitive form ''*limnés'' (composed of root ''li-'', suffix ''-mn-'' and ending ''-és'').  In this case, the nominative has the ablaut vowels ''é–o-Ø'' while the genitive has the ablaut vowels ''Ø–Ø-é'' — i.e. all three components have different ablaut vowels, and the stress position has likewise moved.  A large number of different patterns of ablaut variation existed; language learners had to both learn the ablaut patterns and memorize which pattern went with which word. There was a certain regularity of which patterns occurred with which suffixes and formations, but with many exceptions.
 
Already by late PIE times, this system was extensively simplified, and daughter languages show a steady trend towards more and more regularization and simplification.  Note that far more simplification occurred in the late PIE nominal system than in the verbal system, where the original PIE ablaut variations were maintained essentially intact well into the recorded history of conservative daughter languages such as [[Sanskrit]] and [[Ancient Greek]], as well as in the [[Germanic languages]] (in the form of [[Germanic strong verb|strong verbs]]).
 
As with PIE verbs, a basic distinction is made between ''[[PIE verbs#Primary vs. secondary verbs|primary formations]]'', i.e. words formed directly from a root as described above, and ''secondary formations'', which are formed from existing words (whether primary or secondary).
 
===Athematic and thematic nominals===
A fundamental distinction is made between [[thematic vowel|''thematic'' and ''athematic'']] nominals. Thematic nominals have a stem ending in a ''thematic vowel'', {{PIE|*''-o-''}} in almost all cases, sometimes [[Indo-European ablaut|ablauting]] to {{PIE|*''-e-''}}. The [[Proto-Indo-European accent|accent]] is fixed on the same syllable throughout the inflection.
The stem of athematic nominals ends in a consonant. They have a complex system of accent and ablaut alterations between the root, the stem and the ending (see [[#Athematic accent/ablaut classes|below]]). This type is generally held as more archaic.
 
From the perspective of the daughter languages, a distinction is often made between ''vowel'' stems (''i-'', ''u-'', ''(y)ā-'', ''(y)o-''stems) and ''consonantic'' stems (the rest). However, from the PIE perspective, only the ''o''-stems are truly vocalic.  Both {{PIE|*''i''}} and {{PIE|*''u''}} are vocalic [[allophone]]s of underlying consonants (the glides {{PIE|*''y''}} and {{PIE|*''w''}}, respectively),<ref>
Words like {{PIE|*''mén-t'''i'''-s''}} are athematic because the {{PIE|*''i''}} is just the vocalic form of the glide {{PIE|*''y''}}, the full grade of the suffix being {{PIE|*''-te'''y'''-''}}. See [[Proto-Indo-European phonology#Vowels|Proto-Indo-European phonology: Vowels]] for further information on the syllabification rules for PIE sonorants.</ref> and post-PIE {{PIE|*''ā''}} was actually {{PIE|*''eh₂''}} in PIE. Nonetheless, it still makes sense to distinguish the individual stems. Although at an earlier stage, all athematic stems may have been inflected alike, by late PIE times each stem had its own inflectional peculiarities.
 
Among the most common athematic stems are root stems, ''i''-stems, ''u''-stems, ''eh₂''-stems, ''n''-stems, ''nt''-stems, ''r''-stems and ''s''-stems.  Within each of these, numerous subclasses developed by late PIE times.
 
Originally, ''-h₂'' by itself was a suffix used to form feminine nouns (originally, perhaps these were collective nouns).  Remnants of this period exist in (e.g.) the ''eh₂''-stems, ''ih₂''-stems, ''uh₂''-stems and bare ''h₂''-stems, which were originally the feminine equivalents of the ''o''-stems, ''i''-stems, ''u''-stems and root nouns, respectively.  Already by late PIE times, however, this system was breaking down.  ''-eh₂'' became generalized as the feminine suffix, and ''eh₂''-stem nouns evolved more and more in the direction of thematic ''o''-stems, with fixed ablaut and accent, increasingly idiosyncratic endings and frequent borrowing of endings from the ''o''-stems.  Nonetheless, clear traces of the earlier system are seen especially in [[Sanskrit]], where the reflexes of ''ih₂''-stems and ''uh₂''-stems (''ī''-stems and ''ū''-stems, respectively) still exist as distinct classes comprising largely feminine nouns. (Over time, these stem classes merged with ''i''-stems and ''u''-stems, with frequent crossover of endings.)
 
===Root nouns===
PIE also had a class of monosyllabic athematic or so-called ''root nouns'' which lack a derivational suffix (or equivalently, have a zero suffix), the ending being directly added to the root (as in {{PIE|*''dóm-s''}}, derived from {{PIE|*''dem-''}} "build"<ref>{{PIE|*''dem-''}} "build" is also reconstructed as {{PIE|*''demh₂-''}} which could mean that "house" is actually {{PIE|*''dómh₂-s''}}.</ref>). These nouns can also be interpreted as having a [[Null morpheme|zero]] suffix or one without a phonetic body ({{PIE|*''dóm-Ø-s''}}).
 
Verbal stems have corresponding morphological features, the ''root [[Present tense|present]]'' and the ''root [[aorist]]''.
 
===Prefixes and reduplication===
Some nominals were formed with prefixes. An example is {{PIE|*'''''ni'''-sd-os''}} "nest", derived from the verb {{PIE|*''sed-''}} "sit" by adding a local prefix and thus meaning "where [the bird] sits" or the like.
 
A special kind of prefixation, called ''reduplication'', uses the first part of the root plus a vowel as a prefix. For example, {{PIE|*''kʷel(h₁)-''}} "turn" gives {{PIE|*'''''kʷe'''-kʷl(h₁)-os''}} "wheel".
This type of derivation is also found in verbs, mainly to form the [[perfect (grammar)|perfect]].
 
==Grammatical categories==
PIE nouns, as well as adjectives and [[Proto-Indo-European pronouns|pronouns]], are subject to the system of PIE nominal inflection, inflecting for eight or nine cases: [[nominative]], [[Accusative case|accusative]], [[vocative]], [[genitive]], [[dative case|dative]], [[Instrumental case|instrumental]], [[ablative]], [[locative]], and possibly a directive or [[allative]].<ref>{{Harvcoltxt|Fortson|2004|p=102}}</ref> The so-called ''strong'' or ''direct'' cases are the nominative and the vocative for all numbers, and the accusative case for singular and dual (and possibly plural as well), and the rest are the ''weak'' or ''oblique'' cases. This classification is relevant for inflecting the athematic nominals of different accent classes (see below).
 
Three [[Grammatical number|numbers]] were distinguished: singular, dual and plural. Many (possibly all) athematic neuter nouns had a special [[collective number|collective]] form instead of the plural, which inflected with singular endings, but with the ending -h<sub>2</sub> in the direct cases, and an amphikinetic ablaut pattern (see below).<ref>{{Harvcoltxt|Ringe|2006}}</ref>
 
Late PIE had three [[grammatical gender|genders]]: masculine, feminine and neuter. Originally, there probably were only an animate (masculine/feminine) and an inanimate (neuter) gender.<ref>{{Harvcoltxt|Fortson|2004|p=103}}</ref> This view is supported by the existence of certain classes of [[Latin]] and [[Ancient Greek]] adjectives which inflect only for two sets of endings, one for masculine and feminine, the other for neuter. Further evidence comes from the [[Anatolian languages]] which exhibit only the animate and the inanimate gender.<ref>Mallory, J. P. and D. Q. Adams. 2006. The Oxford introduction to Proto-Indo-European and the Proto-Indo-European world. P.59</ref> However, this could also mean that [[Proto-Anatolian]] inherited a three-gender PIE system, and subsequently [[Hittite language|Hittite]] and other Old Anatolian languages eliminated the feminine by merging it with the masculine.<ref>[http://books.google.com/books?id=J-f_jwCgmeUC&pg=RA1-PA13 Google Books: The Ancient Languages of Asia Minor]</ref> The typically feminine ā-stems are considered to originate from the same form as the neuter plural, originally an abstract/collective derivational suffix {{PIE|*''-h₂''}}.<ref>Luraghi, Silvia. 2009. [http://attach.matita.net/silvialuraghi/file/Origin%20of%20the%20feminine%20gender.pdf The origin of the feminine gender in PIE. An old problem in a new perspective.] In Bubenik, V., J. Hewson and S. Rose (ed.)Grammatical change in Indo-European languages.</ref>
 
===Case endings===
Not all authors reconstruct the same sets of endings. Some endings are difficult to reconstruct. For example, the original form of the genitive plural is a particular thorny issue, because different daughter languages appear to reflect different proto-forms. It is variously reconstructed as *-ōm, *-om, *-oHom, etc. Meanwhile, the dual endings of cases other than the merged nominative/vocative/accusative are often considered impossible to reconstruct because these endings are attested sparsely and diverge radically in different languages.
 
The following shows three modern mainstream reconstructions. Sihler (1995)<ref>{{Harvcoltxt|Sihler|1995|p=248}}</ref> remains closest to the data, often reconstructing multiple forms when daughter languages show divergent outcomes. Ringe (2006)<ref>{{Harvcoltxt|Ringe|2006|p=41}}</ref> is somewhat more speculative, willing to assume analogical changes in some cases to explain divergent outcomes from a single source form. Fortson (2004)<ref>{{Harvcoltxt|Fortson|2004|p=113}}</ref> is between Sihler and Ringe.
 
The thematic vowel {{PIE|*''-o-''}} ablauts to {{PIE|*''-e-''}} only in word-final position in the vocative singular, and before {{PIE|*''h₂''}} in the neuter nominative and accusative plural. The vocative singular is also the only case for which the thematic nouns show ''accent retraction'', a leftward shift of the accent, denoted by {{PIE|*''-ĕ''}}.
 
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"
 
! rowspan="2" colspan="2"| !! colspan="3" | Athematic !! colspan="3" | Thematic
|-
! Sihler !! Ringe !! Fortson
! Sihler !! Ringe !! Fortson
|-
!rowspan=9|Singular !! [[Nominative case|Nominative]]
| colspan=2|{{PIE|*-s ~ *-Ø}}
| {{PIE|*-s}}
| colspan=3|{{PIE|*-o-s}}
|-
! [[Vocative case|Vocative]]
| colspan=3|{{PIE|*-Ø}}
| colspan=3|{{PIE|*-ĕ}}
|-
! [[Accusative case|Accusative]]
| colspan=3|{{PIE|*-m}}
| colspan=3|{{PIE|*-o-m}}
|-
! Nom./Voc./Acc. Neuter
| colspan=3|{{PIE|*-Ø}}
| colspan=3|{{PIE|*-o-m}}
|-
! [[Instrumental case|Instrumental]]
| {{PIE|*-bhi ~ *-mi ~ *-(e)h₁}}
| {{PIE|*-é-h₁ ~ *-h₁}}
| {{PIE|*-h₁}}
| {{PIE|*-o-h₁ ~ *-e-h₁}}
| colspan=2|{{PIE|*-o-h₁ > *-ō}}
|-
! [[Dative case|Dative]]
| colspan="3" | {{PIE|*-ey}}
| {{PIE|*-ōy}}
| colspan="2" | {{PIE|*-o-ey > *-ōy}}
|-
! [[Ablative case|Ablative]]
| rowspan="2" colspan="2" | {{PIE|*-s ~ *-os ~ *-es}}
| rowspan="2"| {{PIE|*-s}}
| {{PIE|*-ōt, *-āt}}
| {{PIE|*-o-ad}}
| {{PIE|*-o(h₂)at > *-ōt}}
|-
! [[Genitive case|Genitive]]
| {{PIE|*-ī, *-osyo}}
| {{PIE|*-o-syo (?)}}
| {{PIE|*-o-s (?)}}
|-
! [[Locative case|Locative]]
| colspan="3" | {{PIE|*-i, *-Ø<sup>§</sup>}}
| {{PIE|*-o-y ~ *-e-y}}
| {{PIE|(**-e →) *-e-y}}
| {{PIE|*-o-y}}
|-
!rowspan=4|Dual !! Nom./Voc./Acc.
| {{PIE|*-h₁e ~ *-h₁}}
| {{PIE|*-h₁e}}
| {{PIE|*-h₁}}
| {{PIE|*-o-h₁ ~ *-o-(h₁)e}}
| colspan=2|{{PIE|*-o-h₁ > *-ō}}
|-
! Nom./Voc./Acc. Neuter
| ???
| colspan=2|{{PIE|*-ih₁}}
| {{PIE|*-oyh₁}}
| {{PIE|*-o-y(h₁)}}
| {{PIE|*-oyh₁}}
|-
! Inst./Dat./Abl.
| colspan=3|???
| colspan=3|???
|-
! Gen./Loc.
| ???
| *-ows (?)
| ???
| {{PIE|*-eyows ~ *-oyows (?)}}
| ???
| ???
|-
!rowspan=7|Plural  !! Nom./Voc.
| colspan=3|{{PIE|*-es}}
| {{PIE|*-ōs <br />-oy (pron.)}}
| colspan=2|{{PIE|*-o-es > *-ōs}}
|-
! Accusative
| {{PIE|*-ms}}
| colspan=2|{{PIE|*-ns}}
| {{PIE|*-o-ms}}
| colspan=2|{{PIE|*-o-ns}}
|-
! Nom./Voc./Acc. Neuter
| {{PIE|*-h₂}}
| {{PIE|*-h₂ ~ *-Ø}}
| {{PIE|*-h₂}}
| colspan=3|{{PIE|*-e-h₂ > *-ā}}
|-
! Instrumental
| {{PIE|*-bhis ~ *-mis ~ *-mīs}}
| {{PIE|*-bhí}}
| rowspan=2|{{PIE|*-bh-<sup>†</sup>}}
| {{PIE|*-ōys ~ *-o-mis (?) ~ *-o-mīs (?)}}
| {{PIE|*-ōys}}
| rowspan=2|{{PIE|*-o(i)bh-<sup>†</sup>}}
|-
! Dat./Abl.
| {{PIE|*-bhos ~ -mos}}
| {{PIE|*-mos}}
| {{PIE|*-o-bhos ~ o-mos}}
| {{PIE|*-o-mos (*-o-y-mos?)}}
|-
! Genitive
| {{PIE|*-om (?)}}
| {{PIE|*-oHom}}
| {{PIE|*-ōm}}
| {{PIE|*-ōm<br />-oysōm (pron.)}}
| {{PIE|*-o-oHom}}
| {{PIE|*-ōm}}
|-
! Locative
| colspan="3" | {{PIE|*-su}}
| {{PIE|(*-o-su?)<br />*-oysu (pron.)}}
| colspan=2|{{PIE|*-o-y-su}}
|}
<sup>†</sup>The dative, instrumental and ablative plural endings probably contained a {{PIE|*''bʰ''}} but are of uncertain structure otherwise. They might also have been of post-PIE date.
 
<sup>§</sup>For athematic nouns, an ''endingless locative'' is reconstructed in addition to the ordinary locative singular in {{PIE|*''-i''}}. In contrast to the other weak cases, it typically has full or lengthened grade of the stem.
 
A much more speculative reconstruction is found in Beekes (1995).<ref>{{Harvcoltxt|Beekes|1995|pp={{Page needed|date=August 2010}}}}</ref> This reconstruction does not give separate tables for the thematic and athematic endings, assuming that they were originally the same and only differentiated in daughter languages. In general, this reconstruction assumes much more analogical change than most other current reconstructions of the same endings.
 
{| class="wikitable"
!rowspan="2" |
! colspan="2" | Singular
! colspan="2" | Dual
! colspan="2" | Plural
|-
! Animate
! Neuter
! Animate
! Neuter
! Animate
! Neuter
|-
! [[Nominative case|Nominative]]
| {{PIE|*-s, *-Ø}}
| rowspan=3|{{PIE|*-m, *-Ø}}
| rowspan=2|{{PIE|*-h₁(e)}}
| rowspan=3|{{PIE|*-ih₁}}
| rowspan=2|{{PIE|*-es}}
| rowspan=3|{{PIE|*-h₂, *-Ø}}
|-
! [[Vocative case|Vocative]]
| {{PIE|*-Ø}}
|-
! [[Accusative case|Accusative]]
| {{PIE|*-m}}
| {{PIE|*-ih₁}}
| {{PIE|*-ns}}
|-
! [[Instrumental case|Instrumental]]
| colspan="2" | {{PIE|*-(e)h₁}}
| colspan="2" | {{PIE|*-bʰih₁}}
| colspan="2" | {{PIE|*-bʰi}}
|-
! [[Dative case|Dative]]
| colspan="2" | {{PIE|*-(e)i}}
| colspan="2" | {{PIE|*-me}}
| colspan="2" | {{PIE|*-mus}}
|-
! [[Ablative case|Ablative]]
| rowspan="2" colspan="2" | {{PIE|*-(o)s}}
| colspan="2" | {{PIE|*-ios}}
| colspan="2" | {{PIE|*-ios}}
|-
! [[Genitive case|Genitive]]
| colspan="2" | {{PIE|*-h₁e}}
| colspan="2" | {{PIE|*-om}}
|-
! [[Locative case|Locative]]
| colspan="2" | {{PIE|*-i, *-Ø}}
| colspan="2" | {{PIE|*-h₁ou}}
| colspan="2" | {{PIE|*-su}}
|}
 
==Athematic accent/ablaut classes==
 
===Early PIE===
Early PIE nouns showed complex patterns of ablaut, where the root, stem and ending all showed ablaut variations.  Polysyllabic athematic nominals (type <tt>R+S+E</tt>) exhibit four characteristic patterns that include accent and ablaut alternations throughout the paradigm between the root, the stem and the ending. Root nouns (type <tt>R+E</tt>) show similar behaviour, but with only two patterns.<ref name="Fortson ablaut classes">{{Harvcoltxt|Fortson|2004|pp=108–109}}</ref> A distinction can be made between "kinetic" types (Ancient Greek ''kinetikos'' = moving) and "static" types (Ancient Greek ''statikos'' = holding still).
 
{| class="wikitable"
! Type !! Subtype !! Case !! R !! S !! E !! Example !! Translation
|-
| colspan="8" |
|-
! colspan="8" | Polysyllabic nominals
|-
| colspan="8" |
|-
! rowspan="4" | acrostatic (or acrodynamic)<br/>(akros = beginning)
! rowspan="2" | Normal
| strong
| style="background: #faa;" | ó
| Ø
| Ø
| nom. sg. {{PIE|[[:wikt:Appendix:Proto-Indo-European/nókʷts|*nókʷ-t-s]]}}
| rowspan="2" | "night"
|-
| weak
| style="background: #ada;" | é
| Ø
| Ø
| gen. sg. {{PIE|*nékʷ-t-s}}
|-
! rowspan="2" | Lengthened<br/>("Narten" type)
| strong
| style="background: #dfd;" | ḗ
| Ø
| Ø
| nom. sg. {{PIE|[[:wikt:Appendix:Proto-Indo-European/mḗh₁n̥s|*mḗh₁-n̥s]]}}
| rowspan="2" | "moon"
|-
| weak
| style="background: #ada;" | é
| Ø
| Ø
| gen. sg. {{PIE|*méh₁-n̥s-os}}<ref>{{cite book | title=From Proto-Indo-European to Proto-Germanic | author=Don Ringe | publisher=Oxford University Press | year=2006 | isbn=978-0-19-955229-0 | page=47 }}</ref>
|-
| colspan="8" |
|-
! rowspan="4" | proterokinetic (or proterodynamic)<br/>(proteros = before)
! rowspan="2" | Normal
| strong
| style="background: #ada;" | é
| Ø
| Ø
| nom. sg. {{PIE|[[:wikt:Appendix:Proto-Indo-European/méntis|*mén-ti-s]]}}
| rowspan="2" | "thought"
|-
| weak
| Ø
| style="background: #ada;" | é
| Ø
| gen. sg. {{PIE|*mn̥-téy-s}}
|-
! rowspan="2" | Old acrostatic<ref>{{cite book | title=Indo-European Language and Culture: An Introduction | author=Benjamin W. Fortson | publisher=Blackwell Publishing | year=2004 | isbn=1-4051-0316-7 | page=108 }}</ref>
| strong
| style="background: #faa;" | ó
| Ø
| Ø
| nom. sg. {{PIE|[[:wikt:Appendix:Proto-Indo-European/dóru|*dór-u]]}}
| rowspan="2" | "tree"
|-
| weak
| Ø
| style="background: #ada;" | é
| Ø
| gen. sg. {{PIE|*dr-éw-s}}
|-
| colspan="8" |
|-
! rowspan="3" colspan="2" | hysterokinetic (or hysterodynamic)<br/>(hysteros = later)
| strong
| Ø
| style="background: #ada;" | é
| Ø
| nom. sg. {{PIE|[[:wikt:Appendix:Proto-Indo-European/ph₂tḗr|*ph₂-tḗr]] < *ph₂-tér-s}}<ref name="Szemerenyi">Actually, only {{PIE|*''ph₂tḗr''}} and {{PIE|*''dṓm''}} can be reconstructed, but these forms could have developed from the regular ones ({{PIE|*''ph₂térs''}} and {{PIE|*''dóms''}}, respectively) via [[Szemerényi's law]].</ref>
| rowspan="3" | "father"
|-
| weak
| Ø
| Ø
| style="background: #ada;" | é
| gen. sg. {{PIE|*ph₂-tr-és}}
|-
| loc. sg.
| Ø
| style="background: #ada;" | é
| Ø
| loc. sg. {{PIE|*ph₂-tér-(i)}}
|-
| colspan="8" |
|-
! rowspan="3" colspan="2" | amphikinetic (or amphidynamic)<br/>(amphis = on both sides)
| strong
| style="background: #ada;" | é
| style="background: #faa;" | o
| Ø
| nom. sg. {{PIE|[[:wikt:Appendix:Proto-Indo-European/léymō|*léy-mō]] < *léy-mon-s}}
| rowspan="3" | "lake"
|-
| weak
| Ø
| Ø
| style="background: #ada;" | é
| gen. sg. {{PIE|*li-mn-és}}
|-
| loc. sg.
| Ø
| style="background: #ada;" | é
| Ø
| loc. sg. {{PIE|*li-mén-(i)}}
|-
| colspan="8" |
|-
! colspan="8" | Root nouns
|-
| colspan="8" |
|-
! rowspan="4" | acrostatic
! rowspan="2" | Normal
| strong
| style="background: #faa;" | ó
|
| Ø
| nom. sg. {{PIE|[[:wikt:Appendix:Proto-Indo-European/dṓm|*dṓm]] < *dóm-s}}<ref name="Szemerenyi" />
| rowspan="2" | "house"
|-
| weak
| style="background: #ada;" | é
|
| Ø
| gen. sg. {{PIE|*dém-s}}
|-
! rowspan="2" | Lengthened<br/>("Narten" type)
| strong
| style="background: #dfd;" | ḗ
|
| Ø
| nom. sg. {{PIE|[[:wikt:Appendix:Proto-Indo-European/mḗms|*mḗms]]}}
| rowspan="2" | "meat"
|-
| weak
| style="background: #ada;" | é
|
| Ø
| gen. sg. {{PIE|*méms-os?}}<!-- This may need a better example. I can't find a citation of this form specifically, but it would be expected when compared to mḗh₁n̥s above, which also ends in -s. Are there any examples without -s? -->
|-
| colspan="8" |
|-
! rowspan="3" colspan="2" | amphikinetic (?)
| strong
| style="background: #ada;" | é
|
| Ø
| nom. sg. {{PIE|[[:wikt:Appendix:Proto-Indo-European/wréh₂ds|*wréh₂d-s]]}}
| rowspan="2" | "root"
|-
| weak
| Ø
|
| style="background: #ada;" | é
| gen. sg. {{PIE|*wr̥h₂d-és}}
|-
| loc. sg.
| style="background: #ada;" | é
|
| Ø
| loc. sg. {{PIE|*wréh₂d-(i)}}
|}
 
Notes:
# In the strong cases of proterokinetic nominals, the accent is placed on the penultimate syllable of the stem. When there is only one suffix, the root will be the penultimate syllable; when there is more than one suffix, the penultimate syllable will be a suffix, and the root will appear unaccented and in the zero grade.<ref>{{Harvcoltxt|Ringe|2006|pp=45}}</ref>
# There is an unexpected o-grade of the suffix in the strong cases of polysyllabic amphikinetic nominals. Another unusual property of this class is the locative singular having a stressed e-grade suffix.
 
The classification of the amphikinetic root nouns is disputed.<ref>{{Harvcoltxt|Fortson|2004|pp=109ff}}</ref> Since these words have no suffix, they differ from the amphikinetic polysyllables in the strong cases (no o-grade) and in the locative singular (no e-grade suffix). Some scholars prefer to call these nouns amphikinetic and the corresponding polysyllables ''holokinetic'' (or ''holodynamic'', from holos = whole).<ref>{{Harvcoltxt|Meier-Brügger|Fritz|Mayrhofer|2003|p=216}}</ref>
 
Some<ref>{{Harvcoltxt|Meier-Brügger|Fritz|Mayrhofer|2003|loc=F 315}}</ref> also list ''mesostatic'' (meso = middle) and ''teleutostatic'' types, with the accent fixed on the suffix and the ending, respectively, but their existence in PIE is disputed.<ref>{{Harvcoltxt|Fortson|2004|p=107}}</ref> The classes can then be grouped into three ''static'' (acrostatic, mesostatic, teleutostatic) and three or four ''mobile'' (proterokinetic, hysterokinetic, amphikinetic, holokinetic) paradigms.
 
===Late PIE===
By late PIE, the above system was already significantly eroded, with one of the root ablaut grades tending to be extended throughout the paradigm.  Erosion is much more extensive in all the daughter languages, with only the oldest stages of most languages showing any root ablaut, and typically only in a small number of irregular nouns.  Examples are:
* [[Vedic Sanskrit]] ''dā́ru'' "wood", gen. ''drṓs'' < PIE ''*dóru, *dreus''
* [[Old Irish]] ''ben'' "woman", gen. ''mná'' < PIE ''*gʷén-eH₂, *gʷn-eH₂-s''
* [[Old Avestan]] ''zyā̊'' "winter", gen. ''zimō'' < PIE ''*ǵhyems, *ǵhimós''
* [[Ancient Greek]] ''Zdeús'' "Zeus", gen. ''Di(w)ós'', Vedic Sanskrit ''d(i)yāúḥ'' "heaven", gen. ''diváḥ, dyōḥ'', both < PIE ''*dyēus, *déiwos'' "sky, day, god"
* [[Proto-Germanic]] reconstructed ''*tan(þ)s'' "tooth" gen. ''*tundiz''<ref>{{Harvcoltxt|Ringe|2006|pp=280}}</ref> < PIE ''*h₃dónts, h₃dn̥tés'', with the nominative stem preserved in Old Norse ''tǫnn'', Old Saxon ''tand'', Old English ''tōþ'', and the genitive stem in Gothic ''tundus''.
The most extensive remains are in Vedic Sanskrit and Old Avestan (the oldest recorded stages of oldest Indic and Iranian languages, c. 1300-1700 BC); younger stages of the same languages already show extensive regularization.
 
In many cases, a former ablauting paradigm was generalized in the daughter languages, but in different ways.  For example, Ancient Greek ''dóru'' "spear" < PIE nominative ''*dóru'' "wood, tree" and [[Old English]] ''trēo'' "tree" < PIE genitive ''dreu-s'' reflect different stems of a PIE ablauting paradigm PIE ''*dóru, *dreus'', PIE nominative ''*dóru'' and genitive ''*dreu-s'', which is still reflected directly in Vedic Sanskrit nom. ''dā́ru'' "wood", gen. ''drṓs''.  We can similarly reconstruct PIE ''*ǵónu, ǵnéus'' "knee" from Ancient Greek ''gónu'' and Old English ''knēo''.  In this case we don't have an extant ablauting paradigm in a single language, although we have Avestan accusative ''žnūm'' and [[Modern Persian]] ''zānū'', which strongly implies that [[Proto-Iranian]] had an ablauting paradigm (and quite possibly Avestan also; we can't tell because the nominative is not extant).  We can also clearly reconstruct an ablauting paradigm ''*pōds'', ''*ped-'' "foot" based on Greek ''pous'' gen. ''podós'' (< ''*pō(d)s'', ''*pod-'') vs. Latin ''pēs'' gen. ''pedis'' (< ''*ped-'') vs. Old English ''fōt'' (< ''*pōd-''), with differing ablaut grades among cognate forms in different languages.
 
In some cases we would expect ablaut based on the form (given numerous other examples of ablauting nouns of the same form), but a single ablaut variant is found throughout the paradigm.  In such cases it is often assumed that the noun did show ablaut in early PIE, but was generalized to a single form already in late PIE or shortly afterwards.  An example is Greek ''génus'' "chin, jaw", Sanskrit ''hánus'' "jaw", Latin ''gena'' "cheek", Gothic ''kinnus'' "cheek". All except the Latin form suggest a masculine ''u''-stem with non-ablauting PIE root ''*ǵen-'', but certain irregularities (the position of the accent, the unexpected feminine ''ā''-stem form in Latin, the unexpected Gothic stem ''kinn-'' < ''ǵenw-'', the ablaut found in Greek ''gnáthos'' "jaw" < PIE ''*ǵnH₂dh-'', Lithuanian ''žándas'' "jawbone" < ''*ǵonHdh-os'') suggest an original ablauting neuter noun ''*ǵénu, *ǵnéus'' in early PIE, generalizing the nominative ablaut already in late PIE and switching to the masculine ''u''-stem in the post-PIE period.  Another example is ''*nokʷts'' "night", where an acrostatic root paradigm might be expected based on the form, but the consistent stem ''*nokʷt-'' is found throughout the family.  With the discovery of Hittite, however, the form ''/nekʷts/'' "in the evening" was found, evidently a genitive and indicating that early PIE did indeed have an acrostatic paradigm, smoothed out already in late PIE but still incomplete at the time of the separation of Hittite.
 
==Heteroclitic stems==
Some athematic noun stems have different final consonants in different cases; these are termed ''heteroclitic stems''. Most of these stems end in {{PIE|*''-r-''}} in the nominative and accusative singular, and in {{PIE|*''-n-''}} in the other cases. Examples of such r/n-stems include the acrostatic neuter {{PIE|*''wód-r̥''}} "water", genitive {{PIE|*''wéd-n-s''}}; and {{PIE|*''peh₂-wr̥''}} "fire", genitive {{PIE|*''ph₂-wen-s''}} or similar.
 
A possible l/n-stem is {{PIE|*''seh₂-wōl''}} "sun", genitive {{PIE|*''sh₂-wén-s''}} or the like.<ref>{{Harvcoltxt|Fortson|2004|pp=110–111}}</ref>
 
==Adjectives==
Adjectives in PIE generally have the same form as the corresponding nouns, although when paradigms are gender-specific more than one paradigm may be combined to form an adjectival paradigm, which must be declined for gender as well as number and case.  The paradigmatic example of this is ''o/ā''-stem adjectives, which have masculine forms following masculine ''o''-stems (''-os''), feminine forms following ''ā''-stems and neuter forms following neuter ''o''-stems (''-om'').  ''u''-stem, ''i''-stem, and ''n''-stem adjectives use the corresponding neuter noun variants for their neuter forms, and the normal masculine/feminine noun variants for both masculine and feminine.
 
===Caland-system adjectives===
A number of adjectival roots form part of the [[Caland system]].  The cognates derived from these roots in different daughter languages often do not agree in formation, but show certain characteristic properties:
*Adjectives are formed using zero-ablaut ''ro''-stems, ''u''-stems or ''nt''-stems
*Adjectives are sometimes formed using ''i''-stems, especially in the first part of a compound
*Corresponding stative verbs in ''-eh₁'' often exist
 
Examples:
 
1. '''*h₁le(n)gʷh-''' "light (in weight)":
*''ro''-stems: Ancient Greek ''elaphrós'' "light, quick"; [[Old High German]] ''lungar'' "fast"
*''u''-stems: Ancient Greek ''elakhús'' "small"; Sanskrit ''laghú-, raghú-'' "quick, light, small"; Avestan ''ragu-'' "fast"; Latin ''levis'' "light" < ''*h₁legʷh-us''; Lithuanian ''lengvùs'' "light"; [[Old Church Slavonic]] ''lŭgŭkŭ'' "light"'
*''i''-stems: Avestan ''rǝnjišta-'' "fastest"
 
2. '''*h₂erǵ-''' "white":
*''ro''-stems: Ancient Greek ''argós'' < ''*argrós'' "white"; Sanskrit ''ṛjrá-'' "brilliant"
*''u''-stems: Tocharian B ''ārkwi'' "white"
*''i''-stems: Ancient Greek ''argi-kéraunos'' "with bright lightning"
 
3. '''*h₁reudh-''' "red":
*''ro''-stems: Ancient Greek ''eruthrós'' "red"; Latin ''ruber'' "red"; Tocharian B ''ratre'' "red"
*''i''-stems: Sanskrit ''rudhiras'' (mixed with ''ro''-stem)
*''-eh₁'' verbs: Latin ''rubēo'' "be red", Old High German ''rōtēn'' "shine red"
 
4. '''*bherǵh-''' "high"
*''ro''-stems: Tocharian B ''pärkare'' "high"
*''u''-stems: Hittite ''parku-'' "high"; Armenian ''barjr'' "high" < ''*-u-''<ref name="caland-handout">John J. Lowe, ''Caland Adjectives and Participles in Sanskrit and Proto-Indo-European''. [http://users.ox.ac.uk/~shug1472/Caland_handout.pdf].</ref>
*''i''-stems: Avestan ''bǝrǝzi-'' "high" in compounds
*''nt''-stems: Sanskrit ''brḥánt-'' "high", Avestan ''bǝrǝzant-'' "high", Germanic name ''Burgund-'', Irish name ''Brigit'', Tocharian A ''koṃ-pärkānt'' "sunrise"<ref name="caland-handout"/>
 
5. '''*dheub-''' "deep"
*''ro''-stems: Tocharian B ''tapre'' "high" < ''*dhub-ro-''
*''u''-stems: Lithuanian ''dubùs'' "hollow"
 
==Examples==
The following are example declensions of a number of different types of nouns, based on the reconstruction of Ringe (2006).<ref name="Ringe 2006 47–50"/>
 
{| cellspacing="0" cellpadding="0" class="wikitable"
! colspan="2" |
! acrostatic root noun
! acrostatic lengthened root noun
! amphikinetic (?) root noun
! hysterokinetic r-stem
! amphikinetic n-stem
! hysterokinetic n-stem
|-
! colspan="2" | [[gloss (annotation)|gloss]]
| night (f.)
| moon (m.)
| foot (m.)
| father (m.)
| lake (m.)
| bull (m.) (< "ox")
|-
! rowspan="8" | sing.
! nom.
| {{PIE|*nókʷts}}
| {{PIE|*mḗh₁n̥s}}
| {{PIE|*pṓds}}
| {{PIE|*ph₂tḗr}}
| {{PIE|*léymō}}
| {{PIE|*uksḗn}}
|-
! voc.
| {{PIE|*nókʷt}}
| {{PIE|*mḗh₁n̥s}}
| {{PIE|*pód}}
| {{PIE|*ph₂tér}}
| {{PIE|*léymon}}
| {{PIE|*úksen}}
|-
! acc.
| {{PIE|*nókʷtm̥}}
| {{PIE|*mḗh₁n̥sm̥}}
| {{PIE|*pódm̥}}
| {{PIE|*ph₂térm̥}}
| {{PIE|*léymonm̥}}
| {{PIE|*uksénm̥}}
|-
! inst.
| {{PIE|*nékʷt(e)h₁}}
| {{PIE|*méh₁n̥s(e)h₁}}
| {{PIE|*pedéh₁}}
| {{PIE|*ph₂tr̥éh₁}}
| {{PIE|*limnéh₁}}
| {{PIE|*uksn̥éh₁}}
|-
! dat.
| {{PIE|*nékʷtey}}
| {{PIE|*méh₁n̥sey}}
| {{PIE|*pedéy}}
| {{PIE|*ph₂tr̥éy}}
| {{PIE|*limnéy}}
| {{PIE|*uksn̥éy}}
|-
! abl.
| {{PIE|*nékʷts}}
| {{PIE|*méh₁n̥sos}}
| {{PIE|*pedés}}
| {{PIE|*ph₂tr̥és}}
| {{PIE|*limnés}}
| {{PIE|*uksn̥és}}
|-
! gen.
| {{PIE|*nékʷts}}
| {{PIE|*méh₁n̥sos}}
| {{PIE|*pedés}}
| {{PIE|*ph₂tr̥és}}
| {{PIE|*limnés}}
| {{PIE|*uksn̥és}}
|-
! loc.
| {{PIE|*nékʷt(i)}}
| {{PIE|*méh₁n̥s(i)}}
| {{PIE|*péd(i)}}
| {{PIE|*ph₂tér(i)}}
| {{PIE|*limén(i)}}
| {{PIE|*uksén(i)}}
|-
! dual
! nom.-voc.-acc.
| {{PIE|*nókʷth₁e}}
| {{PIE|*mḗh₁n̥sh₁e}}
| {{PIE|*pódh₁e}}
| {{PIE|*ph₂térh₁e}}
| {{PIE|*léymonh₁e}}
| {{PIE|*uksénh₁e}}
|-
! rowspan="6" | plur.
! n.-v.
| {{PIE|*nókʷtes}}
| {{PIE|*mḗh₁n̥ses}}
| {{PIE|*pódes}}
| {{PIE|*ph₂téres}}
| {{PIE|*léymones}}
| {{PIE|*uksénes}}
|-
! acc.
| {{PIE|*nókʷtn̥s}}
| {{PIE|*mḗh₁n̥sn̥s}}
| {{PIE|*pódn̥s}}
| {{PIE|*ph₂térn̥s}}
| {{PIE|*léymonn̥s}}
| {{PIE|*uksénn̥s}}
|-
! inst.
| {{PIE|*nékʷtbʰi}}
| {{PIE|*méh₁n̥sbʰi}}
| {{PIE|*pedbʰí}}
| {{PIE|*ph₂tr̥bʰí}}
| {{PIE|*limn̥bʰí}}
| {{PIE|*uksn̥bʰí}}
|-
! dat.-abl.
| {{PIE|*nékʷtm̥os}}
| {{PIE|*méh₁n̥smos}}
| {{PIE|*pedmós}}
| {{PIE|*ph₂tr̥mós}}
| {{PIE|*limn̥mós}}
| {{PIE|*uksn̥mós}}
|-
! gen.
| {{PIE|*nékʷtoHom}}
| {{PIE|*méh₁n̥soHom}}
| {{PIE|*pedóHom}}
| {{PIE|*ph₂tr̥óHom}}
| {{PIE|*limn̥óHom}}
| {{PIE|*uksn̥óHom}}
|-
! loc.
| {{PIE|*nékʷtsu}}
| {{PIE|*méh₁n̥su}}
| {{PIE|*pedsú}}
| {{PIE|*ph₂tr̥sú}}
| {{PIE|*limn̥sú}}
| {{PIE|*uksn̥sú}}
|-
| colspan="8" |
|-
! colspan="2" |
! proterokinetic neuter r/n-stem
! amphikinetic collective neuter r/n-stem
! amphikinetic m-stem
! proterokinetic ti-stem
! proterokinetic tu-stem
! proterokinetic neuter u-stem
|-
! colspan="2" | gloss
| water (n.)
| water(s) (n.)
| earth (f.)
| thought (f.)
| taste (m.)
| tree (n.)
|-
! rowspan="8" | sing.
! nom.
| {{PIE|*wódr̥}}
| {{PIE|*wédōr}}
| {{PIE|*dʰéǵʰōm}}
| {{PIE|*méntis}}
| {{PIE|*ǵéwstus}}
| {{PIE|*dóru}}
|-
! voc.
| {{PIE|*wódr̥}}
| {{PIE|*wédōr}}
| {{PIE|*dʰéǵʰom}}
| {{PIE|*ménti}}
| {{PIE|*ǵéwstu}}
| {{PIE|*dóru}}
|-
! acc.
| {{PIE|*wódr̥}}
| {{PIE|*wédōr}}
| {{PIE|*dʰéǵʰōm}}
| {{PIE|*méntim}}
| {{PIE|*ǵéwstum}}
| {{PIE|*dóru}}
|-
! inst.
| {{PIE|*udénh₁}}
| {{PIE|*udnéh₁}}
| {{PIE|*ǵʰméh₁}}
| {{PIE|*mn̥tíh₁}}
| {{PIE|*ǵustúh₁}}
| {{PIE|*drúh₁}}
|-
! dat.
| {{PIE|*udéney}}
| {{PIE|*udnéy}}
| {{PIE|*ǵʰméy}}
| {{PIE|*mn̥téyey}}
| {{PIE|*ǵustéwey}}
| {{PIE|*dréwey}}
|-
! abl.
| {{PIE|*udéns}}
| {{PIE|*udnés}}
| {{PIE|*ǵʰmés}}
| {{PIE|*mn̥téys}}
| {{PIE|*ǵustéws}}
| {{PIE|*dréws}}
|-
! gen.
| {{PIE|*udéns}}
| {{PIE|*udnés}}
| {{PIE|*ǵʰmés}}
| {{PIE|*mn̥téys}}
| {{PIE|*ǵustéws}}
| {{PIE|*dréws}}
|-
! loc.
| {{PIE|*udén(i)}}
| {{PIE|*udén(i)}}
| {{PIE|*ǵʰdʰsém(i)}}
| {{PIE|*mn̥téy (-ēy)}}
| {{PIE|*ǵustéw(i)}}
| {{PIE|*dréw(i)}}
|-
! dual
! nom.-voc.-acc.
|
|
|
| {{PIE|*méntih₁}}
| {{PIE|*ǵéwstuh₁}}
| {{PIE|*dórwih₁}}
|-
! rowspan="6" | plur.
! n.-v.
|
|
|
| {{PIE|*ménteyes}}
| {{PIE|*ǵéwstewes}}
| {{PIE|*dóruh₂}}
|-
! acc.
|
|
|
| {{PIE|*méntins}}
| {{PIE|*ǵéwstuns}}
| {{PIE|*dóruh₂}}
|-
! inst.
|
|
|
| {{PIE|*mn̥tíbʰi}}
| {{PIE|*ǵustúbʰi}}
| {{PIE|*drúbʰi}}
|-
! dat.-abl.
|
|
|
| {{PIE|*mn̥tímos}}
| {{PIE|*ǵustúmos}}
| {{PIE|*drúmos}}
|-
! gen.
|
|
|
| {{PIE|*mn̥téyoHom}}
| {{PIE|*ǵustéwoHom}}
| {{PIE|*dréwoHom}}
|-
! loc.
|
|
|
| {{PIE|*mn̥tísu}}
| {{PIE|*ǵustúsu}}
| {{PIE|*drúsu}}
|-
| colspan="8" |
|-
! colspan="2" |
! neuter s-stem
! proterokinetic h₂-stem
! hysterokinetic h₂-stem
! eh₂-stem (ā-stem)
! o-stem
! neuter o-stem
|-
! colspan="2" | gloss
| cloud (n.)
| woman (f.) (> "queen")
| tongue (f.)
| grain (f.)
| nest (m.)
| work (n.)
|-
! rowspan="8" | sing.
! nom.
| {{PIE|*nébʰos}}
| {{PIE|*gʷḗn}}
| {{PIE|*dn̥ǵʰwéh₂s}}
| {{PIE|*dʰoHnéh₂}}
| {{PIE|*nisdós}}
| {{PIE|*wérǵom}}
|-
! voc.
| {{PIE|*nébʰos}}
| {{PIE|*gʷḗn}}
| {{PIE|*dń̥ǵʰweh₂}}
| {{PIE|*dʰoHn[á]}}
| {{PIE|*nisdé}}
| {{PIE|*wérǵom}}
|-
! acc.
| {{PIE|*nébʰos}}
| {{PIE|*gʷénh₂m̥}}
| {{PIE|*dn̥ǵʰwéh₂m (-ām)}}
| {{PIE|*dʰoHnéh₂m (-ā́m)}}
| {{PIE|*nisdóm}}
| {{PIE|*wérǵom}}
|-
! inst.
| {{PIE|*nébʰes(e)h₁}}
| {{PIE|*gʷnéh₂(e)h₁}}
| {{PIE|*dn̥ǵʰuh₂éh₁}}
| {{PIE|*dʰoHnéh₂(e)h₁}}
| {{PIE|*nisdóh₁}}
| {{PIE|*wérǵoh₁}}
|-
! dat.
| {{PIE|*nébʰesey}}
| {{PIE|*gʷnéh₂ey}}
| {{PIE|*dn̥ǵʰuh₂éy}}
| {{PIE|*dʰoHnéh₂ey}}
| {{PIE|*nisdóey}}
| {{PIE|*wérǵoey}}
|-
! abl.
| {{PIE|*nébʰesos}}
| {{PIE|*gʷnéh₂s}}
| {{PIE|*dn̥ǵʰuh₂és}}
| {{PIE|*dʰoHnéh₂s}}
| {{PIE|*nisdéad}}
| {{PIE|*wérǵead}}
|-
! gen.
| {{PIE|*nébʰesos}}
| {{PIE|*gʷnéh₂s}}
| {{PIE|*dn̥ǵʰuh₂és}}
| {{PIE|*dʰoHnéh₂s}}
| {{PIE|*nisdósyo}}
| {{PIE|*wérǵosyo}}
|-
! loc.
| {{PIE|*nébʰes(i)}}
| {{PIE|*gʷnéh₂(i)}}
| {{PIE|*dn̥ǵʰwéh₂(i)}}
| {{PIE|*dʰoHnéh₂(i)}}
| {{PIE|*nisdéy}}
| {{PIE|*wérǵey}}
|-
! dual
! nom.-voc.-acc.
| {{PIE|*nébʰesih₁}}
| {{PIE|*gʷénh₂h₁e}}
| {{PIE|*dn̥ǵʰwéh₂h₁e}}
| ?
| {{PIE|*nisdóh₁}}
| {{PIE|*wérǵoy(h₁)}}
|-
! rowspan="6" | plur.
! n.-v.
| {{PIE|*nébʰōs}}
| {{PIE|*gʷénh₂es}}
| {{PIE|*dn̥ǵʰwéh₂es}}
| {{PIE|*dʰoHnéh₂es}}
| {{PIE|*nisdóes}}
| {{PIE|*wérǵeh₂}}
|-
! acc.
| {{PIE|*nébʰōs}}
| {{PIE|*gʷénh₂n̥s}}
| {{PIE|*dn̥ǵʰwéh₂ns (-ās)}}
| {{PIE|*dʰoHnéh₂ns (-ās)}}
| {{PIE|*nisdóns}}
| {{PIE|*wérǵeh₂}}
|-
! inst.
| {{PIE|*nébʰesbʰi}}
| {{PIE|*gʷnéh₂bʰi}}
| {{PIE|*dn̥ǵʰuh₂bʰí}}
| {{PIE|*dʰoHnéh₂bʰi}}
| {{PIE|*nisdṓys}}
| {{PIE|*wérǵōys}}
|-
! dat.-abl.
| {{PIE|*nébʰesmos}}
| {{PIE|*gʷnéh₂mos}}
| {{PIE|*dn̥ǵʰuh₂mós}}
| {{PIE|*dʰoHnéh₂mos}}
| {{PIE|*nisdó(y)mos}}
| {{PIE|*wérǵo(y)mos}}
|-
! gen.
| {{PIE|*nébʰesoHom}}
| {{PIE|*gʷnéh₂oHom}}
| {{PIE|*dn̥ǵʰuh₂óHom}}
| {{PIE|*dʰoHnéh₂oHom}}
| {{PIE|*nisdóoHom}}
| {{PIE|*wérǵooHom}}
|-
! loc.
| {{PIE|*nébʰesu}}
| {{PIE|*gʷnéh₂su}}
| {{PIE|*dn̥ǵʰuh₂sú}}
| {{PIE|*dʰoHnéh₂su}}
| {{PIE|*nisdóysu}}
| {{PIE|*wérǵoysu}}
|}
 
==Derivation==
New words are formed in several ways, namely:
# by ablaut alternations (the root consonantism is intact, but vocalization changes), e.g. {{PIE|*''ḱernes''}} "horned" from {{PIE|*''ḱernos''}} "horn, roe". Many PIE adjectives formed this way were subsequently [[nominalize]]d in daughter languages.
# by alternating accent (i.e. switching to another accent/ablaut class), e.g. {{PIE|*''bʰóros''}} "burden", but {{PIE|*''bʰorós''}} "carrier"
# by derivational suffixes (possibly coupled with changes 1 and 2)
# by [[reduplication]]
# by combining lexical morphemes themselves ([[Compound (linguistics)|compounding]]); e.g. PIE {{PIE|*''drḱ-h₂ḱru''}} "tear", literally "eye-bitter"
 
==Notes==
{{Reflist|2}}
 
==References==
*{{cite book| last=Beekes| first=Robert S. P.| authorlink=Robert S. P. Beekes| title=Comparative Indo-European Linguistics| location=[[Amsterdam]]| publisher=John Benjamins| year=1995|id=ISBN 90-272-2150-2 (Europe), ISBN 1-55619-504-4 (U.S.)}}<!--| isbn=90-272-2150-2}}-->
*{{cite book| last=Buck| first=Carl Darling| authorlink=Carl Darling Buck| title=Comparative Grammar of Greek and Latin| publisher=University of Chicago Press| year=1933| isbn=0-226-07931-7}}
*{{cite book| last=Fortson | first=Benjamin W., IV | authorlink=Benjamin W. Fortson, IV| title=Indo-European Language and Culture| publisher=Blackwell Publishing| year=2004| isbn=1-4051-0316-7}}
* {{cite book|first1=Michael |last1=Meier-Brügger |author1-link=Michael Meier-Brügger |first2=Matthias |last2=Fritz |first3=Manfred |last3=Mayrhofer |author3-link=Manfred Mayrhofer |title=Indo-European Linguistics |year=2003 |publisher=Walter de Gruyter |isbn=3-11-017433-2 |location=Berlin; New York }}
*{{cite book| last=Ringe |first=Don | authorlink=Donald Ringe| title=From Proto-Indo-European to Proto-Germanic|publisher=Oxford University Press  |year=2006 |isbn=978-0-19-955229-0}}
*{{cite book| last=Sihler| first=Andrew L.| authorlink=Andrew L. Sihler| title=New Comparative Grammar of Greek and Latin| publisher=Oxford University Press| year=1995| isbn=0-19-508345-8}}
*{{cite book | first=William Dwight | last=Whitney | authorlink=William Dwight Whitney | title=Sanskrit Grammar | publisher=Harvard University Press | year=1889 | isbn=0-486-43136-3 }}
 
{{Proto-Indo-European language}}
 
{{DEFAULTSORT:Proto-Indo-European Noun}}
[[Category:Proto-Indo-European language|Noun]]
 
[[zh:原始印歐名詞]]

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