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[[Image:Protonshower.jpg|thumb|right|Cosmic ray air shower created by a 1TeV proton hitting the atmosphere 20 km above the Earth. The shower was simulated using the [[AIRshower Extended Simulations|AIRES]] package. Animated 3d models of this and other showers can be found on [[COSMUS]].]] 
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An '''air shower''' is an extensive (many kilometres (miles) wide) [[Particle shower|cascade]] of ionized particles and [[electromagnetic radiation]] produced in the [[Earth's atmosphere|atmosphere]] when a ''primary'' [[cosmic ray]] (i.e. one of extraterrestrial origin) enters the atmosphere. The term ''cascade'' means that the incident particle, which could be a [[proton]], a [[Atomic nucleus|nucleus]], an [[electron]], a [[photon]], or (rarely) a [[positron]], strikes a molecule in the air so as to produce many energetic hadrons. The unstable hadrons decay in the air speedily into other particles and electromagnetic radiation, which are part of the shower components.
 
The air shower was discovered by Bruno Rossi in 1934. By observing the cosmic ray with the detectors placed apart from each other, Rossi recognized that many particles arrive simultaneously at the detectors.<ref>{{Citation
|title= Extensive Air Showers
|first1=M.
|last1=Rao
|publisher= World Scientific
|year=1998
|isbn= 9789810228880
|page=5}}
</ref> This phenomenon is now called an air shower.
 
==Air shower formation==
[[Image:AirShower.svg|thumb|310px|Air shower formation in the atmosphere. First proton collides with an air molecule creating pions, protons and neutrons.]]
After the primary cosmic particle has collided with the air molecule, the main part of the first interactions are [[pion]]s. Also [[kaon]]s and [[baryon]]s may be created. Pions and kaons are not stable, thus they may decay into other particles.  
 
The neutral pions <math>\scriptstyle\pi^0</math> decay into photons <math>\scriptstyle\gamma</math> in a process <math>\scriptstyle\pi^0 \rightarrow \gamma + \gamma </math>. The photons produced form an electromagnetic cascade by creating more photons, electrons and positrons.<ref name="rao10">{{Citation
|title= Extensive Air Showers
|first1=M.
|last1=Rao
|publisher= World Scientific
|year=1998
|isbn= 9789810228880
|page=10
|url= http://books.google.fi/books?id=t5UZ3mtJVzAC }}
</ref>
 
The charged pions <math>\scriptstyle\pi^\pm</math> preferentially decay into muons and neutrinos in the processes <math>\scriptstyle\pi^+ \rightarrow \mu^+ + \nu</math> and  <math>\scriptstyle\pi^- \rightarrow \mu^- + \nu</math>. This is how the muons and neutrinos are produced in the air shower.<ref name="rao10"/>
 
Also, kaon may be an origin of muons, which means the decay process is <math>\scriptstyle K^{+/-} \rightarrow \mu^{+/-} + \nu</math>. In the other hand kaons can produce also pions via the decay mode <math>\scriptstyle K^{+/-} \rightarrow \pi^{+/-} + \pi^0</math>.<ref name="rao10"/>
 
==Detection==
The original particle arrives with high energy and hence a velocity near the [[speed of light]], so the products of the collisions tend also to move generally in the same direction as the primary, while to some extent spreading sidewise. In addition, the secondary particles produce a widespread flash of light in forward direction due to the [[Cherenkov effect]], as well as [[Fluorescence|fluorescence light]] that is emitted isotropically from the excitation of nitrogen molecules. The particle cascade and the light produced in the atmosphere can be detected with surface detector arrays and optical telescopes. Surface detectors typically use [[Cherenkov detector]]s or [[Scintillation counter]]s to detect the charged secondary particles at ground level. The telescopes used to measure the fluorescence and Cherenkov light use large mirrors to focus the light on [[Photomultiplier|PMT]] clusters.
 
The longitudinal profile of the number of charged particles can be parameterized by the [[Gaisser-Hillas function]].
 
==See also==
*[[Cosmic-ray observatory]]
 
== References ==
{{Reflist}}
 
==External links==
*[http://www.lanl.gov/milagro/detecting.shtml Extensive Air Showers].
*[http://hermes.physics.adelaide.edu.au/astrophysics/muon/buckland_park.html  Buckland Park Air Shower Detector]
*[http://www.ast.leeds.ac.uk/haverah/havpark.shtml Haverah Park Detection System]
*[http://www.cosmic-ray.org/ HiRes Detector System]
*[http://www.auger.org/ Pierre Auger Observatory]
*[http://www.hisparc.nl/ HiSPARC] (High School Project on Astrophysics Research with Cosmics)
*[http://www.fisica.unlp.edu.ar/auger/aires/ AIRES] (AIRshower Extended Simulations) : Large and well documented Fortran package for simulating cosmic ray showers by Sergio Sciutto at the Department of Physics of the [[Universidad Nacional de La Plata]], Argentina
*[[CORSIKA]], [http://www-ik.fzk.de/corsika/ CORSIKA]: Another code for simulating cosmic ray air showers by Dieter Heck of the [[Forschungszentrum Karlsruhe]], Germany
*[http://astro.uchicago.edu/cosmus/projects/aires COSMUS] : Interactive animated 3d models of several different cosmic ray air showers, and instructions on how to make your own using AIRES simulations. From the COSMUS group at the University of Chicago.
*[http://scipp.ucsc.edu/milagro/Animations/AnimationIntro.html Milagro Animations] : Movies and instructions for how to make them, showing how air showers interact with the Milagro detector. By Miguel Morales.
*[http://cosmo.nyu.edu/~hjd1/CASSIM/ CASSIM Animations] : Animations of different cosmic ray air showers by Hajo Dreschler of New York University.
*[http://www.bartol.udel.edu/spase SPASE2 Experiment] : South-Pole Air Shower Experiment (SPASE).
*[http://www.gamma-armenia.org GAMMA Experiment] : High mountain Air Shower Experiment.
 
[[Category:Atmosphere]]
[[Category:Earth phenomena]]
[[Category:Cosmic rays]]

Latest revision as of 22:09, 15 December 2014

To get ex girl friend back one should try his level best to make all positive measures to explain her that what actually went wrong among them. Learning how to get your ex boyfriend back when he has a girlfriend will save you a lot of lonely nights and sleepless nights. He'll want to know what you're up to and why you suddenly dropped off the face of the earth and didn't fight for the relationship. You'll start to see a drastic change in him if you have managed to pull these techniques off properly. Combine these three tips with the rest of a time tested formula for getting your ex back into your arms and you will be able to build yourself up while building up what could be a lasting relationship with the man of your dreams.

Keep your head up high and don't lose your dignity. Your ex is probably in a hurry to get over you and is not clear on what he or she feels. They're in a side room by themselves, so it shouldn't be hard to gun them down or do two quick stealth takedowns. During your time apart analyze what the problems were and if you need to, get some counseling to help you figure out what went wrong. Are you constantly asking yourself "How can I get my ex girlfriend back".

In case all these strategies fail, it is likely that your ex-wife is disinclined, hence it may not be easy for your renew old times. Even if she broke up with you, she will be upset for a few weeks after. After a breakup, a lot of partners haughtily require the other partner to break the silence. Example: "I know you're probably feeling stressed right now with finals coming up. I feel genuinely shallow and heartless hunting back again on it.

Pick either lethal or non-lethal and then drag the body over behind the vents. She'll be looking for comfort, companionship, and someone familiar to help her through it. This is extremely important, because if your exboyfriend thinks you're trying to threaten his new relationship, he's going to avoid you. you can't think, or so much room in your heart that you can't breathe. Know how you can get over a painful break up by visiting Deal With A Break Up.

It is not easy for you and your ex boyfriend to get back after a breakup. Whatever your motivation is to get your ex back, you may be clueless as to how to even start this process and do it in a way that you won't seem too desperate. They truly show how amazing some relationships can be. You want him back because he dumped you and made you feel rejected and unwanted. In other words, you are rejecting him and this will make him feel rejected and make you feel better about yourself.

If you loved this information and you would love to receive details concerning how to win back your ex please visit the web-page.

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