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| [[Image:Bloch Sphere.svg|thumb|256px|Bloch sphere]]
| | Live Cattle, like corn is a perfect market for beginning commodity traders. The meats complex also includes Pork Bellies, Lean Hogs and Feeder Cattle. Here's some hints and kinks to get you off with a good start trading the meats!<br><br>However, you have to have alternative to bet again as well as to your original count. It is because the odds bet: meaning the casino (online or real) doesn't have their usual house advantage locations also hedges on true odds. Many casinos and internet-based casino sites offer lessons for Craps as this is one among the most popular and exciting games held. There is normally a great level of money riding on Craps games and also the atmosphere all around the Craps table is along with cheering spectators, all vying for likelihood to the player win big. This is the proper way to see in the game when an individual checking out a land based casino.<br><br><br><br>The trees in the backyard can be also bordered with a low sturdy vertical structure. The stone wall can also also become a sitting area. It would be a perfect spot to sit down under the shade of your tree having a book.<br><br>Choose wood floors for your own if you can afford it. Although laminates may look like real wood and are easier to manage, they can't be refinished. Choosing the cheaper option will mean that it will need to be replaced sooner, whereas quality materials can long lasting.<br><br>Exercise with him (or her)----Don't just tell the to get some exercise. Go for it and join him. From the how my pops used go walking his little pint-size min pin (miniature pinscher), "Willie Boy", down their mountain road. Includes a crank to escape and walks, as well as chat with my aunt. What's more, he got the possibility to greet the neighbors. Furthermore did he get physical exercise, many needed socialization as appropriately.<br><br>The Feeder Cattle futures contract is less liquid than Live Cattle futures trading. The Feeder contract size is greater by ten thousand pounds. This equates to $100 more per full point step. (one cent = one full point) Feeder Cattle usually make larger movements than Live Cows. The price low in the 1970's for Feeders was at 36 cents but the high in 2006 was $1.20 one pound. This was 16 cents higher than Live Cattle Futures.<br><br>Upgrade your kitchen to improve home value quickly. Kitchen improvements is really as simple as refreshing paint or wallpaper or as complex as installing new cabinetry, appliances or floors. You can do most kitchen improvements yourself or contract using a professional for difficult things. Investing in your kitchen makes your own house more enjoyable for yourself and your family, and it in addition increases home value if you happen to decide to market your houses.<br><br>Now to produce what always make money are for garden walling, it merely a a couple of deciding 1 hand. Most in their wall could be built any kind of special skills, so make the purchase anyway a built it unique. You will be saving the backyard with a wall, therefore will look good when it has been over.<br><br>If you have any kind of inquiries pertaining to where and just how to utilize [http://www.hedgingplants.com/ hedgingplants], you could call us at our own internet site. |
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| In [[quantum mechanics]], the '''Bloch sphere''' is a geometrical representation of the [[pure state]] space of a [[two-level system|two-level quantum mechanical system]] ([[qubit]]), named after the physicist [[Felix Bloch]].<ref>{{cite journal|last=Bloch|first=Felix|title=Nuclear induction|journal=Phys. Rev.|date=Oct 1946|volume=70(7-8)|issue=460}}</ref>
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| Quantum mechanics is mathematically formulated in [[Hilbert space]] or [[projective Hilbert space]].
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| The space of pure states of a quantum system is given by the one-dimensional subspaces of the corresponding Hilbert space (or the "points" of the projective Hilbert space).
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| In a two-dimensional Hilbert space this is simply the [[Riemann sphere|complex projective line]], which is a geometrical sphere.
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| The Bloch sphere is a unit [[N-sphere|2-sphere]], with each pair of [[Antipodal points|antipodal]] points corresponding to mutually orthogonal state vectors.
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| The north and south poles of the Bloch sphere are typically chosen to correspond to the standard basis vectors <math>|0\rangle</math> and <math>|1\rangle</math>, respectively,
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| which in turn might correspond e.g. to the [[Spin (physics)|spin]]-up and [[Spin (physics)|spin]]-down states of an electron.
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| This choice is arbitrary, however. | |
| The points on the surface of the sphere correspond to the [[Quantum_state#Superposition_of_pure_states|pure state]]s of the system, whereas the interior points correspond to the [[Quantum_state#Mixed_states|mixed states]].<ref name="nc">
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| {{cite book |title=Quantum Computation and Quantum Information |last1=Nielsen |first1=Michael A. |authorlink1=Michael_Nielsen |last2=Chuang |first2=Isaac L. |authorlink2=Isaac_Chuang |year=2004 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-521-63503-5}}
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| </ref><ref>http://www.quantiki.org/wiki/Bloch_sphere</ref> | |
| The Bloch sphere may be generalized to an ''n''-level quantum system but then the visualization is less useful. | |
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| In optics, the Bloch sphere is also known as the [[Poincaré sphere]] and specifically represents different types of [[Polarization (waves)|polarizations]]. See the [[Jones_calculus#Jones_vectors|Jones Vector]] for a detailed list of the 6 common polarization types and how they map on to the surface of this sphere.
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| The natural [[Metric (mathematics)|metric]] on the Bloch sphere is the [[Fubini–Study metric]].
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| == Definition ==
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| Given an orthonormal basis, any pure state <math>|\psi\rangle</math> of a two-level quantum system can be written as a superposition of the basis vectors
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| <math>|0 \rangle</math> and <math>|1 \rangle </math>, where the coefficient or amount of each basis vector is a complex number.
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| Since only the relative phase between the coefficients of the two basis vectors has any physical meaning, we can take the coefficient of <math>|0 \rangle</math> to be real and non-negative.
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| We also know from quantum mechanics that the total probability of the system has to be one, so it must be that <math>\langle \psi^* | \psi \rangle = 1</math>, meaning <math>||\psi \rangle|^2 = 1</math>. Given this constraint, we can write <math>|\psi\rangle</math> in the following representation:
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| :<math> |\psi\rangle = \cos\left(\tfrac{\theta}{2}\right) |0 \rangle \, + \, e^{i \phi} \sin\left(\tfrac{\theta}{2}\right) |1 \rangle =
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| \cos\left(\tfrac{\theta}{2}\right) |0 \rangle \, + \, ( \cos \phi + i \sin \phi) \, \sin\left(\tfrac{\theta}{2}\right) |1 \rangle </math>
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| with <math> 0 \leq \theta \leq \pi</math> and <math>0 \leq \phi < 2 \pi</math>.
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| Except in the case where <math>|\psi\rangle</math> is one of the ket vectors <math> |0 \rangle</math> or <math> |1 \rangle</math> the representation is unique.
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| The parameters <math>\theta \,</math> and <math>\phi \,</math>, re-interpreted as [[Spherical coordinate system|spherical coordinates]], specify a point
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| <math>\vec{a} = (\sin \theta \cos \phi, \; \sin \theta \sin \phi, \; \cos \theta)</math> on the unit sphere in <math>\mathbb{R}^{3}</math>.
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| For mixed states, any two-dimensional [[density operator]] <math>\rho</math> can be expanded using the identity <math>I</math> and the [[Hermitian matrix|Hermitian]], [[Trace (linear algebra)|traceless]] [[Pauli matrices]] <math>\vec{\sigma}</math>:
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| :<math>\rho = \frac{1}{2}\left(I +\vec{a} \cdot \vec{\sigma} \right)</math>,
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| where <math>\vec{a} \in \mathbb{R}^3</math> is called the '''Bloch vector''' of the system.
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| The eigenvalues of <math>\rho</math> are given by <math>\frac{1}{2}\left(1 \pm |\vec{a}|\right)</math>.
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| As density operators must be positive-semidefinite, we have <math>|\vec{a}| \le 1</math>.
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| For pure states we must have
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| :<math>\mathrm{tr}(\rho^2) = \frac{1}{2}\left(1 +|\vec{a}|^2 \right) = 1 \quad \Leftrightarrow \quad |\vec{a}| = 1</math>,
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| in accordance with the previous result.
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| Hence the surface of the Bloch sphere represents all the pure states of a two-dimensional quantum system, whereas the interior corresponds to all the mixed states.
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| == A generalization for pure states ==
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| Consider an ''n''-level quantum mechanical system. This system is described by an ''n''-dimensional [[Hilbert space]] ''H''<sub>''n''</sub>. The pure state space is by definition the set of 1-dimensional rays of ''H''<sub>''n''</sub>.
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| '''Theorem'''. Let [[U(N)|U(''n'')]] be the [[Lie group]] of unitary matrices of size ''n''. Then the pure state space of ''H''<sub>''n''</sub> can be identified with the compact coset space
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| :<math> \operatorname{U}(n) /(\operatorname{U}(n-1) \times \operatorname{U}(1)). </math>
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| To prove this fact, note that there is a [[natural transformation|natural]] [[group action]] of U(''n'') on the set of states of ''H''<sub>''n''</sub>. This action is continuous and [[transitive group action|transitive]] on the pure states. For any state <math>|\psi\rangle</math>, the [[isotropy group]] of <math>|\psi\rangle</math>, (defined as the set of elements <math>g</math> of U(''n'') such that <math>g |\psi\rangle = |\psi\rangle</math>) is isomorphic to the product group
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| :<math> \operatorname{U}(n-1) \times \operatorname{U}(1). </math>
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| In linear algebra terms, this can be justified as follows. Any <math>g</math> of U(''n'') that leaves <math>|\psi\rangle</math> invariant must have <math>|\psi\rangle</math> as an [[eigenvector]]. Since the corresponding eigenvalue must be a complex number of modulus 1, this gives the U(1) factor of the isotropy group. The other part of the isotropy group is parametrized by the unitary matrices on the orthogonal complement of <math>|\psi\rangle</math>, which is isomorphic to U(''n'' - 1). From this the assertion of the theorem follows from basic facts about transitive group actions of compact groups.
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| The important fact to note above is that the ''unitary group acts transitively'' on pure states.
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| Now the (real) [[dimension]] of U(''n'') is ''n''<sup>2</sup>. This is easy to see since the exponential map
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| :<math> A \mapsto e^{i A} </math>
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| is a local homeomorphism from the space of self-adjoint complex matrices to U(''n''). The space of self-adjoint complex matrices has real dimension ''n''<sup>2</sup>.
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| '''Corollary'''. The real dimension of the pure state space of ''H''<sub>''n''</sub> is
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| 2''n'' − 2.
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| In fact,
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| :<math> n^2 - ((n-1)^2 +1) = 2 n - 2. \quad </math>
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| Let us apply this to consider the real dimension of an ''m'' qubit quantum register. The corresponding Hilbert space has dimension 2<sup>''m''</sup>.
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| '''Corollary'''. The real dimension of the pure state space of an ''m'' qubit quantum register is 2<sup>''m''+1</sup> − 2.
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| == The geometry of density operators ==
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| Formulations of quantum mechanics in terms of pure states are adequate for isolated systems; in general quantum mechanical systems need to be described in terms of [[density matrix|density operators]]. However, while the Bloch sphere parametrizes not only pure states but mixed states for 2-level systems, for states of higher dimensions there is difficulty in extending this to mixed states. The topological description is complicated by the fact that the unitary group does not act transitively on density operators. The orbits moreover are extremely diverse as follows from the following observation:
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| '''Theorem'''. Suppose ''A'' is a density operator on an ''n'' level quantum mechanical system whose distinct eigenvalues are μ<sub>1</sub>, ..., μ<sub>''k''</sub> with multiplicities ''n''<sub>1</sub>, ...,''n''<sub>''k''</sub>. Then the group of
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| unitary operators ''V'' such that ''V A V''* = ''A'' is isomorphic (as a Lie
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| group) to
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| :<math>\operatorname{U}(n_1) \times \cdots \times \operatorname{U}(n_k).</math>
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| In particular the orbit of ''A'' is isomorphic to
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| :<math>\operatorname{U}(n)/(\operatorname{U}(n_1) \times \cdots \times \operatorname{U}(n_k)).</math>
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| We note here that, in the literature, one can find non-Bloch type parametrizations of (mixed) states that do generalize to dimensions higher than 2.
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| == See also ==
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| * Specific implementations of the Bloch sphere are enumerated under the [[Qubit#Physical_representation|qubit]] article.
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| * [[Gyrovector space]]
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| == References ==
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| {{Reflist}}
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| * Dariusz Chruściński, "[http://www.iop.org/EJ/article/1742-6596/30/1/002/jpconf6_30_002.pdf Geometric Aspect of Quantum Mechanics and Quantum Entanglement]", ''Journal of Physics Conference Series'', '''39''' (2006) pp. 9–16.
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| * Alain Michaud, "[http://jdhosts.net/michaud/RabiOscillations.html Rabi Flopping Oscillations]" (2009). ''(A small animation of the bloch vector submitted to a resonant excitation.)''
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| *{{Cite book | author= Singer, Stephanie Frank | title=Linearity, Symmetry, and Prediction in the Hydrogen Atom | publisher=Springer | location=New York | year=2005 | isbn=0-387-24637-1}}
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| {{DEFAULTSORT:Bloch Sphere}}
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| [[Category:Quantum mechanics]]
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| [[Category:Projective geometry]]
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Live Cattle, like corn is a perfect market for beginning commodity traders. The meats complex also includes Pork Bellies, Lean Hogs and Feeder Cattle. Here's some hints and kinks to get you off with a good start trading the meats!
However, you have to have alternative to bet again as well as to your original count. It is because the odds bet: meaning the casino (online or real) doesn't have their usual house advantage locations also hedges on true odds. Many casinos and internet-based casino sites offer lessons for Craps as this is one among the most popular and exciting games held. There is normally a great level of money riding on Craps games and also the atmosphere all around the Craps table is along with cheering spectators, all vying for likelihood to the player win big. This is the proper way to see in the game when an individual checking out a land based casino.
The trees in the backyard can be also bordered with a low sturdy vertical structure. The stone wall can also also become a sitting area. It would be a perfect spot to sit down under the shade of your tree having a book.
Choose wood floors for your own if you can afford it. Although laminates may look like real wood and are easier to manage, they can't be refinished. Choosing the cheaper option will mean that it will need to be replaced sooner, whereas quality materials can long lasting.
Exercise with him (or her)----Don't just tell the to get some exercise. Go for it and join him. From the how my pops used go walking his little pint-size min pin (miniature pinscher), "Willie Boy", down their mountain road. Includes a crank to escape and walks, as well as chat with my aunt. What's more, he got the possibility to greet the neighbors. Furthermore did he get physical exercise, many needed socialization as appropriately.
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