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| | My name is Antonia and I am studying Continuing Education and Summer Sessions and Political Science at Finnevaux / Belgium.<br><br>my web blog [http://www.festivaldeisaraceni.it/borse/borse-gucci-outlet.asp?key=5 cinture gucci outlet] |
| {{Redirect|Tombstone}}
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| {{Redirect|Gravestones|the song by Hawthorne Heights|Gravestones (song)}}
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| [[File:Andrew Drake.jpg|thumb|upright|Captain Andrew Drake (1684–1743) sandstone tombstone from the [[Stelton Baptist Church, Edison|Stelton Baptist Church]] [[Edison, New Jersey]]]]
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| A '''headstone''', '''tombstone''', or '''gravestone''' is a [[stele]] or marker, usually stone, that is placed over a [[grave]]. They are traditional for burials in the Christian, Jewish and Muslim religions, among others. In most cases they have the deceased's name, date of birth, and date of death inscribed on them, along with a personal message, or [[prayer]], but they may contain pieces of [[funerary art]], especially details in stone [[relief]]. In many parts of Europe insetting a photograph of the deceased in a frame is very common.
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| == Use ==
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| [[File:Garden of remembrance arch headstone.jpg|thumb|left|upright|[[Marble]] headstone of a couple buried together in [[Singapore]], showing an arched emblem, signifying the reunification with one's partner in heaven. Within the arch is a statue of [[Jesus Christ]]]]
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| The [[stele]] (plural [[stele|stelae]]), as it is called in an archaeological context, is one of the oldest forms of [[funerary art]]. Originally, a tombstone was the stone lid of a stone [[coffin]], or the coffin itself, and a gravestone was the stone slab that was laid over a [[grave (burial)|grave]]. Now all three terms are also used for markers placed at the head of the grave. Some graves in the 18th century also contained [[footstone]]s to demarcate the foot end of the grave. This sometimes developed into full kerb sets that marked the whole perimeter of the grave. Footstones were rarely annotated with more than the deceased's initials and year of death, and sometimes a memorial mason and plot reference number. Many [[cemetery|cemeteries]] and [[churchyard]]s have removed those extra stones to ease grass cutting by machine mower. Note that in some UK cemeteries the principal, and indeed only, marker is placed at the ''foot'' of the grave.
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| Graves, and any related memorials are a focus for [[mourning]] and remembrance. The names of relatives are often added to a gravestone over the years, so that one marker may chronicle the passing of an entire family spread over decades. Since gravestones and a plot in a cemetery or churchyard cost money, they are also a symbol of wealth or prominence in a community. Some gravestones were even commissioned and erected to their own memory by people who were still living, as a testament to their wealth and status. In a [[Christianity|Christian context]], the very wealthy often erected elaborate [[church monument|memorials]] within [[Church (building)|churches]] rather than having simply external gravestones. [[Crematorium|Crematoria]] frequently offer similar alternatives to families who do not have a grave to mark, but who want a focus for their mourning and for [[Memorial|remembrance]]. Carved or cast [[commemorative plaque]]s inside the crematorium for example may serve this purpose.
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| == Materials ==
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| [[File:008-Josiah Leavitt (d. Dec 19th, 1717) grave, Hingham Center Cemetery, Hingham, Plymouth Co., MA.jpg|thumb|Granite tombstone of [[Josiah Leavitt]] (1679–1717), Hingham Center Cemetery, [[Hingham, Massachusetts|Hingham]], Plymouth County, Massachusetts]]
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| [[File:Jewish cemetery Otwock Karczew Anielin IMGP6721.jpg|thumb|Sandstone vestige of a Jewish gravestone depicting a [[Tzedakah]] box. [[Jewish cemetery]] in [[Otwock]] (Karczew-Anielin), Poland.]]
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| [[File:Swithland slate gravestone,Little Dalby churchyard,Leicestershire.jpg|thumb|Swithland Slate gravestone, Little Dalby churchyard, Leicestershire]]
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| [[File:GravestoneWormshill.JPG|thumb|right|Gravestone showing death date of 1639, [[Wormshill]].]]
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| [[File:MountScopusHeadstone2.JPG|thumb|right|''HIS LAST MESSAGE: NO MORE WARS FOR ME'' - A headstone in the [[Jerusalem]] British [[World War I]] Cemetery on [[Mount Scopus]]]]
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| [[File:Shebbear Devon gravestone.jpg|thumb|right|Elaborately carved grave slab at [[Shebbear, England|Shebbear]] (Devon, England) showing a skull sprouting flowering shoots, as a symbol of resurrection]]
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| [[File:Islamic cemetery in Sarajevo.jpg|thumb|Islamic cemetery in [[Sarajevo]], with columnar headstones]]
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| A [[cemetery]] may follow national codes of practice or independently prescribe the size and use of certain materials, especially in a conservation area. Some may limit the placing of a wooden memorial to six months after burial, after which a more permanent memorial must be placed. Others may require stones of a certain shape or position to facilitate grass-cutting by m, or hand-held cutters. Headstones of [[granite]], [[marble]] and other kinds of [[Rock (geology)|stone]] are usually created, installed, and repaired by [[monumental masonry|monumental masons]]. Cemeteries require regular inspection and maintenance, as stones may settle, topple and, on rare occasions, fall and injure people;<ref>[http://www.hse.gov.uk/services/localgovernment/cemletter.htm Memorial safety]{{dead link|date=April 2012}}</ref> or graves may simply become overgrown and their markers lost or [[vandalism|vandalised]].
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| Restoration is a specialized job for a [[monumental masonry|monumental mason]]. Even overgrowth removal requires care to avoid damaging the carving. For example, ivy should only be cut at the base roots and left to naturally die off, never pulled off forcefully.
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| Many [[building materials|materials]] have been used as markers.
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| ===Stone===
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| * '''Fieldstones'''. The earliest markers for graves were natural [[fieldstone]],{{citation needed|date=November 2012}} some unmarked and others decorated or incised using a metal [[bradawl|awl]]. Typical motifs for the carving included a symbol and the deceased's name and age.
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| * '''Granite'''. [[Granite]] is a hard stone and requires skill to carve by hand. Modern methods of carving include using computer-controlled rotary bits and [[sandblasting]] over a rubber stencil. Leaving the letters, numbers and emblems exposed on the stone, the blaster can create virtually any kind of artwork or epitaph.
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| * '''Marble''' and '''limestone'''. Both [[limestone]] and [[marble]] take carving well. Marble is a recrystallised form of limestone. The mild acid in rainwater can slowly dissolve marble and limestone over time, which can make inscriptions unreadable. [[Portland stone]] was a type of limestone commonly used in England—after weathering, fossiliferous deposits tend to appear on the surface. [[Marble]] became popular from the early 19th century, though its extra cost limited its appeal.
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| * '''Sandstone'''. [[Sandstone]] is durable, yet soft enough to carve easily. Some sandstone markers are so well preserved that individual chisel marks are discernible, while others have [[delamination|delaminated]] and crumbled to dust. Delamination occurs when moisture gets between the layers of the sandstone. As it freezes and expands the layers flake off. In the 17th century, sandstone replaced field stones in [[Colonial America]]. [[Yorkstone]] was a common sandstone material used in England.
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| * '''Slate'''. [[Slate]] can have a pleasing texture but is slightly porous and prone to delamination. It takes lettering well, often highlighted with white paint or [[gilding]]. [[Swithland]] slate from Charnwood Forest, Leicestershire, England, was used for a large number of very fine gravestones from the later 17th century into the 19th century. The gravestones are found throughout Leicestershire and in neighbouring counties.<ref>{{cite book|last=Burgess|first=Frederick|title=English Churchyard Memorials|year=1963|publisher=The Lutterworth Press|location=Cambridge}}</ref>
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| ===Metal, wood and plants===
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| [[File:Grave markers in Heidal Church, Norway.jpg|right|thumb|230x230px|Wooden grave markers stored at Heidal Church, Norway]]
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| * '''Iron'''. [[Iron]] grave markers and decorations were popular during the [[Victorian era]] in the [[United Kingdom]] and elsewhere, often being produced by specialist [[foundries]] or the local [[blacksmith]]. [[Cast iron]] headstones have lasted for generations while [[wrought iron]]work often only survives in a rusted or eroded state.
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| * '''White bronze'''. Actually sand cast [[zinc]], but called white bronze for marketing purposes. Almost all, if not all, zinc grave markers were made by the Monumental Bronze Company of Bridgeport, CT, between 1874 and 1914. They are in cemeteries of the period all across the U.S. and Canada. They were sold as more durable than marble, about 1/3 less expensive and progressive.
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| * '''Wood'''. This was a popular material during the [[Georgian era|Georgian]] and [[Victorian era]], and almost certainly before, in [[Great Britain]] and elsewhere. Some could be very ornate, although few survive beyond 50–100 years due to natural decomposition.
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| * '''Planting'''. Trees or shrubs, particularly roses, may be planted, especially to mark the location of ashes. This may be accompanied by a small inscribed metal or wooden marker.
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| == Inscriptions ==
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| Markers usually bear [[monumental inscription|inscriptions]]: [[epitaph]]s in praise of the deceased or quotations from religious texts, such as "''[[requiescat in pace]]''". In a few instances the inscription is in the form of a plea, admonishment, testament of faith, claim to fame or even a curse — [[William Shakespeare]]'s inscription famously declares;
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| : ''Good friend, for Jesus' sake forbear,
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| : ''To dig the dust enclosèd here.
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| : ''Blest be the man that spares these stones,
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| : ''And cursed be he that moves my bones.
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| Or a warning about [[Death|Mortality]], such as this [[Persian Empire|Persian]] poetry carved on an ancient tombstone in the [[Tajiki]] capital of [[Dushanbe]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.informationclearinghouse.info/article18340.htm |title=Information Clearinghouse |publisher=Informationclearinghouse.info |date= |accessdate=2012-04-19}}</ref><ref>[http://news.independent.co.uk/fisk/article2941871.ece Robert Fisk: "An urge to smash history into tiny pieces" Information Clearing House] [[The Independent]], 8 September 2007</ref>
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| :: ''I heard that mighty Jamshed the King
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| :: ''Carved on a stone near a spring of water these words:
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| ::: ''"Many – like us – sat here by this spring
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| ::: ''And left this life in the blink of an eye.
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| ::: ''We captured the whole world through our courage and strength,
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| ::: ''Yet could take nothing with us to our grave."
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| Or a simpler warning of inevitability of death:
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| :: ''Remember me as you pass by,
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| :: ''As you are now, so once was I,
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| :: ''As I am now, so you will be,
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| :: ''Prepare for death and follow me.
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| [[File:Jewish cemetery Sobědruhy 06.JPG|thumb|left|[[Hebrew]] inscriptions on gravestones in [[Sobědruhy]].]]
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| The information on the headstone generally includes the name of the deceased and their date of birth and death. Such information can be useful to [[genealogy|genealogists]] and [[local history|local historians]]. Larger cemeteries may require a discreet reference code as well to help accurately fix the location for maintenance. The cemetery owner, church, or, as in the [[United Kingdom|UK]], national guidelines might encourage the use of 'tasteful' and accurate wording in inscriptions. The placement of inscriptions is traditionally placed on the forward-facing side of the memorial but can also be seen in some cases on the reverse and around the edges of the stone itself. Some families request that an inscription be made on the portion of the memorial that will be underground.<ref>{{cite web|author=Fergus Wessell |url=http://www.stoneletters.com/gallery/photo/headstone-epitaph/|title=Headstone Gallery |date= |accessdate=2013-09-05}}</ref>
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| Headstone engravers faced their own "[[Year 2000 problem]]" when still-living people, as many as 500,000 in the United States alone, pre-purchased headstones with pre-carved death dates beginning 19–.<ref>{{cite web|author=Michael W. Lynch from the July 1999 issue |url=http://reason.com/9907/ci.ml.grave.shtml |title=Grave Problem |publisher=Reason.com |date= |accessdate=2012-04-19}}</ref>
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| [[Bas-relief]] carvings of a religious nature or of a profile of the deceased can be seen on some headstones, especially up to the 19th century. Since the invention of photography, a gravestone might include a framed [[photograph]] or [[cameo (carving)|cameo]] of the deceased; photographic images or artwork (showing the loved one, or some other image relevant to their life, interests or achievements) are sometimes now [[engraving|engraved]] onto smooth stone surfaces.
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| Some headstones use lettering made of white metal fixed into the stone, which is easy to read but can be damaged by ivy or frost. Deep carvings on a hard-wearing stone may weather many centuries exposed in graveyards and still remain legible. Those fixed on the inside of [[Church (building)|churches]], on the [[Commemorative plaque|walls]], or on the [[ledger stone|floor]] (often as near the [[altar]] as possible) may last much longer: such memorials were often embellished with a [[monumental brass]].
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| Marker inscriptions have also been used for political purposes, such as the grave marker installed in January 2008 at [[Cave Hill Cemetery]] in [[Louisville, Kentucky]] by Mathew Prescott, an employee of [[PETA]]. The grave marker is located near the grave of [[KFC]] founder [[Harland Sanders]] and bears the [[acrostic]] message “KFC tortures birds.”<ref>{{cite web|last=Bedard |first=Paul |url=http://www.usnews.com/blogs/washington-whispers/2008/01/10/peta-takes-fight-to-col-sanderss-grave.html |title=PETA Takes Fight to Col. Sanders's Grave |publisher=Usnews.com |date=2008-01-10 |accessdate=2012-04-19}}</ref> The group placed its grave marker to promote its contention that KFC is cruel to chickens.
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| == Form and decoration ==
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| {{Refimprove section|date=August 2011}}
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| [[File:20130707HusbyArt-2.JPG|thumb|left|An [[Horse|equestrian]] motif on an 11th-century [[Sweden|Swedish]] gravestone.]]
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| Gravestones may be simple upright slabs with semi-circular, rounded, gabled, pointed-arched, pedimental, square or other shaped tops. During the 18th century, they were often decorated with ''[[memento mori]]'' (symbolic reminders of [[death]]) such as [[Human skull|skull]]s or winged skulls, winged cherub heads, heavenly crowns, urns or the picks and shovels of the grave digger. Somewhat unusual were more elaborate [[Allegorical sculpture|allegorical figures]], such as Old [[Father Time]], or [[emblem]]s of [[trade]] or [[social status|status]], or even some event from the life of the deceased (particularly how they died). Large tomb chests, false [[sarcophagi]] as the actual remains were in the earth below, or smaller coped chests were commonly used by the [[gentry]] as a means of commemorating a number of members of the same family. In the 19th century, headstone styles became very diverse, ranging from plain to highly decorated, and often using crosses on a base or other shapes differing from the traditional slab. They might be replaced by more elaborately carved markers, such as [[cross]]es or [[angels]]. Simple curb surrounds, sometimes filled with glass chippings, were popular during the mid-20th century.
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| Islamic headstones are traditionally more a rectangular upright shaft, often topped with a carved topknot symbolic of a [[turban]]; but in Western countries more local styles are often used.
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| Some form of simple decoration is once more popular. Special emblems on tombstones indicate several familiar themes in many faiths. Some examples are:
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| {{Multicol}}
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| * '''[[Anchor]]''' - Steadfast hope
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| * '''[[Angel of grief]]''' - Sorrow
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| * '''[[Arch]]''' - Rejoined with partner in [[Heaven]]
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| * '''[[Birds]]''' - The [[soul]]
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| * '''[[Book]]''' - Faith, wisdom
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| * '''[[Cherub]]''' - Divine [[wisdom]] or [[justice]]
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| * '''[[Column]]''' - Noble life
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| * '''Broken [[column]]''' - Early [[death]]
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| * '''[[Conch|Conch shell]]''' - [[Wisdom]]
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| * '''[[Cross]], [[anchor]] and [[Bible]]''' - Trials, victory and reward
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| * '''[[Crown (headgear)|Crown]]''' - Reward and glory
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| * '''[[Dolphin]]''' - Salvation, bearer of souls to Heaven
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| * '''[[Dove]]''' - Purity, love and [[Holy Spirit]]
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| * '''[[Evergreen]]''' - Eternal life
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| * '''[[Garland]]''' - Victory over death
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| * '''[[Gourd]]s''' - Deliverance from grief
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| * '''[[Hands]]''' - A relation or partnership (see Reference 3)
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| * '''[[Heart]]''' - [[wikt:devotion|Devotion]]
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| * '''[[Horseshoe]]''' - Protection against [[evil]]
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| {{Multicol-break}}
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| * '''[[Hourglass]]''' - Time and its swift flight
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| * '''[[Christogram|IHS]]''' - Stylised version of [[iota]]-[[eta]]-[[sigma]], a Greek abbreviation of Jesus; alternatively treated as an initialism for "in Hoc Signo (VInces)" -- "In this sign you shall conquer."
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| * '''[[Ivy]]''' - Faithfulness, memory, and undying friendship
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| * '''[[domestic sheep|Lamb]]''' - [[Innocence]]
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| * '''[[Oil lamp|Lamp]]''' - [[Immortality]]
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| * '''[[Bay laurel|Laurel]]''' - Victory, fame
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| * '''[[Lily]]''' - Purity and [[resurrection]]
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| * '''[[Lion]]''' - Strength, [[resurrection]]
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| * '''[[Mermaid]]''' - Dualism of [[Christ]] - fully [[God]], fully [[man]]
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| * '''[[Oak]]''' - Strength
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| * '''[[Olive branch]]''' - Forgiveness, and peace
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| * '''[[Palm tree|Palm]]s''' - [[Martyr]]dom, or victory over death
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| * '''[[Peacock]]''' - Eternal life
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| * '''[[Pillow]]''' - a deathbed, eternal sleep
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| {{Multicol-break}}
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| * '''[[Poppy]]''' - Eternal sleep
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| * '''[[Rooster]]''' - Awakening, courage and vigilance
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| * '''[[seashell|Shell]]''' - [[Childbirth|Birth]] and [[resurrection]]
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| * '''[[Star of David]]''' - The [[God]]
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| * '''[[Skeleton]]''' - Life's brevity
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| * '''[[Snake]] in a circle''' - Everlasting life in Heaven
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| * '''[[Swallow]]''' - [[Motherhood]]
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| * '''Broken [[sword]]''' - Life cut short
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| * '''[[Sword#Crossed swords symbol|Crossed swords]]''' - Life lost in battle
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| * '''[[Torch]]''' - Eternal life if upturned, death if extinguished
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| * '''[[Trunk (botany)|Tree trunk]]''' - The beauty of life
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| * '''[[Triangle]]''' - Truth, [[egalitarianism|equality]] and the [[Holy Trinity|trinity]]
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| * '''[[Tzedakah|Tzedakah box (pushke)]]''' - Righteousness, for it is written "... to do righteousness and justice" (Gen 18:19) and "the doing of righteousness and justice is preferable to the Lord than sacrificial offering" (Proverbs 21:3).
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| * '''Shattered [[urn]]''' - Old age, mourning if draped
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| * '''[[Salix babylonica|Weeping willow]]''' - [[Mourning]], grief
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| {{Multicol-end}}
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| Greek letters might also be used:
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| * '''<math>\alpha \omega</math>''' ([[Alpha (letter)|alpha]] and [[omega]]) - The beginning and the end
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| * '''<math>\chi \rho</math>''' ([[Chi (letter)|chi]] [[Rho (letter)|rho]]) - The first letters spelling the name of Christ
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| == Safety ==
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| Over time a headstone may settle or its fixings weaken. After several instances where unstable stones have fallen in dangerous circumstances, some burial authorities "topple test" headstones by firm pressure to check for stability. They may then tape them off or flatten them.
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| This procedure has proved controversial in the UK, where an authority's [[duty of care]] to protect visitors is complicated because it often does not have any ownership rights over the dangerous marker. Authorities that have knocked over stones during testing or have unilaterally lifted and laid flat any potentially hazardous stones have been criticised, after grieving relatives have discovered that their relative's marker has been moved.<ref>[http://cemeteryfriends.org.uk/7.html National Federation of Cemetery Friends] Safety in cemeteries guidance</ref>
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| Since 2007 [[Consistory Court]] and local authority guidance now restricts the force used in a topple test and requires an authority to consult relatives before moving a stone. In addition, before laying a stone flat, it must be recorded for posterity.<ref>[http://www.ecclawsoc.org.uk/cases/case47.shtml Ecclesiastical Case Reports] Re Keynsham Cemetery Gravestones</ref><ref>[http://www.lgo.org.uk/pdf/LGO-612-Special-Report-final.pdf Advice and guidance from The Local Government Ombudsmen]{{dead link|date=April 2012}}</ref>
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| == Gallery ==
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| <!-- Please do not add more images without raising it on the talk page first. Thank you! -->
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| <gallery>
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| File:Cromer graveyard1.JPG|An example of how old broken gravestones are reused, in this case as paving
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| File:BuelowHeadstoneSep2003.jpg|Typical late 20th century headstone, [[Dubuque, Iowa]]
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| File:Gravestonesherrillia.jpg|19th century marble headstone, [[Saints Peter and Paul Catholic Church (Sherrill, Iowa)]]
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| File:HNB-tombstone.jpg|Grave marker for Horatio Nelson Ball and father, Joseph Ball, Jr., Grandville Cemetery, MI, USA.
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| File:AnimalGraveTattonPark.jpg|Headstone for a dog, [[Tatton Park]], [[Cheshire]], [[England]].
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| File:Phebe%26TimothyPeckGravestones.jpg|Winged skull & winged soul effigies, Morristown, NJ
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| File:Grabstein Friedhofspark Freireligioese Gemeinde Berlin Prenzlauer Berg.jpg|Unconventional tombstone in the Cemetery Park of the "Freireligiöse Gemeinde" in [[Berlin]], [[Prenzlauer Berg]]. Tree stump headstones in U.S. cemeteries are often associated with fraternal organization [[Woodmen of the World]].
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| File:SculptureGraveyardBerlinSchoeneberg1.jpg|''Der Schlaf'', (The Sleep), 1907, sculpture at by {{Ill|de|Hermann Hosaeus}} at the {{Ill|de|I. Städtischer Friedhof Eisackstraße}}
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| </gallery>
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| == See also ==
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| * [[Epitaph]]
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| * [[Gravestone rubbing]]
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| * [[Khachkar]]
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| * [[Mausoleum]]
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| * [[Megalith]]
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| * [[Sarcophagus]]
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| * [[Scottish gravestones]]
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| * [[Stećak]]
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| * [[Stele]]
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| * [[The Devil's Chair (urban legend)]]
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| * [[Tombstone tourist]]
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| * [[Viewlogy]]
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| == References ==
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| {{Reflist}}
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| == External links ==
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| {{Commons category|Gravestones}}
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| * [http://www.gutenberg.org/etext/12978 In Search Of Gravestones Old And Curious] by W.T. Vincent, 1896, from [[Project Gutenberg]]
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| * [http://azeri.org/Azeri/az_latin/latin_articles/latin_text/latin_131/eng_131/131_sofi_hamid.html Azeri.org], Sofi Hamid Cemetery {{az icon}}
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| * [http://www.worldburialindex.com/of_interest.php World Burial Index] Photographs of memorial inscriptions plus free surname search
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| * [http://www.gravematter.com A Very Grave Matter] Old New England gravestones
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| * [http://www.historicheadstones.com Historic Headstones Online] Project to transcribe content from historic headstones
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| * [http://www.pagstones.com Pennsylvania German tombstones]
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| * [http://www.ettc.net/njarts/details.cfm?ID=956 The Richard Stockton College of New Jersey] includes gravestone imagery in New Jersey, USA
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| * [http://www.memorials.com/Headstones-Cleaning-and-Preservations-of-Tombstones-information.php How to clean a Grave marker by Ralf Heckenbach]
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| * [http://quarriesandbeyond.org/ Stone Quarries and Beyond]
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| * [http://quarriesandbeyond.org/cemeteries_and_monumental_art/quarry_to_cemetery_stone/pdf/memorializing_the_civil_war_dead-bruce_s_elliott_2011.pdf "Memorializing the Civil War Dead: Modernity and Corruption under the Grant Administration"], by Bruce S. Elliott, in ''Markers XXVI'', Association for Gravestone Studies, 2011, pp. 15–55. (Reprinted with permission of the [http://www.gravestonestudies.org/ "Association for Gravestone Studies"]. (Details the beginning of the mass production of cemetery stones and the increased use of the sand blast process.)
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| {{Stonemasonry}}
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| {{Use dmy dates|date=August 2011}}
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| [[Category:Burial monuments and structures]]
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| [[Category:Stones]]
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| [[Category:Monumental masons]]
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