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| {{about|real uses of directed energy weapons|fictional uses|Raygun}}
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| [[File:Active Denial System Humvee.jpg|thumb|257px|right|alt=Humvee with Active Denial System mounted|Humvee with [[Active Denial System]] mounted]]
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| A '''directed-energy weapon''' ('''DEW''') emits [[energy]] in an aimed direction without the means of a [[projectile]]. It transfers energy to a target for a desired effect. Intended effects on humans may be non-lethal or lethal.
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| Aside from uses on people or as a potential missile defense, directed energy technology has also been shown to stop or disable moving cars, drones, jetskis and electronic devices such as mobile phones.<ref name=Telegraph>[http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/uknews/defence/10303988/Golden-Eye-style-energy-beam-is-developed-by-Nato-scientists.html "Daily Telegraph, 12th September 2013"], ''Golden Eye-style energy beam is developed by Nato scientists'', Oct. 08, 2013</ref><ref name=Milsat2>[http://www.satnews.com/story.php?number=1272864526 "Milsat Magazine, Satnews Daily, June 24th 2009"], ''U.S. Navy Laser Versus UAVs... Laser Wins...'', Oct. 08, 2013</ref>
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| The energy can come in various forms:
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| * [[Electromagnetic spectrum|Electromagnetic radiation]], including [[radio frequency]], [[microwave]], [[laser]]s and [[maser]]s
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| * Particles with [[mass]], in [[particle-beam weapon]]s (technically a form of micro-projectile weapon)
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| * [[Sound]], in [[sonic weapon]]s
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| {{TOC limit}}
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| ==Operational advantages==
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| === General ===
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| DEWs can be used discreetly without anyone knowing as radiation used in ranges such as RF (Radio Frequency=3 kHz to 300 GHz) is invisible and can pass through walls.<ref name="Defence IQ Press">[http://www.defenceiq.com/army-and-land-forces/articles/we-talk-to-dr-pali-ek-about-directed-energy-system/ "Defence IQ talks to Dr Palíšek about Directed Energy Weapon systems"], ''Defence iQ', Nov. 20, 2012</ref><ref>[http://cmb.physics.wisc.edu/tutorial/spectrum.html Spectrum Tutorial], University of Wisconsin Electromagnetic Spectrum Tutorial, accessed 22/06/2013</ref>
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| ===Other===
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| Laser weapons could have several main advantages over conventional weaponry:
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| * Laser beams travel at the [[speed of light]], so there is no need (except over ''extremely'' long distances) to compensate for target movement. Consequently, evading an accurately aimed laser after it has been fired is impossible.
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| * Because of its extremely high speed, light is only [[Gravitational lens|slightly affected by gravity]], so that long-range projection requires little compensation. Other aspects such as [[wind]] speed can be neglected at most times, unless shooting through an absorptive matter.
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| * Lasers can change focusing configuration to provide an active area that can be much smaller or larger than projectile weaponry.
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| * Given a sufficient power source, laser weapons could essentially have limitless ammunition.
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| * Because light has a practically zero ratio of [[momentum]] to [[energy]] (exactly <math>1/c</math>), lasers produce negligible [[recoil]].
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| * The operational range of a laser weapon can be much larger than that of a ballistic weapon, depending on atmospheric conditions and power level.
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| * Laser beams do not generate sound or light that would be detected by human senses when emitted, so the weapon would not betray its user's position when fired.
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| Modern ballistic weapons commonly feature systems to counter many of the undesirable side-effects mentioned above. As such, laser weapons' advantage over ballistics could end up more about elegance and cost.
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| == Examples of DEWs ==
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| DEWs tend to be categorised by the frequency in which they operate such as RF (for radio frequency) and Laser, or the way in which they operate.
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| === Microwave weapons ===
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| Although some devices are labelled as Microwave Weapons; the microwave range is commonly defined as being between 300MHz and 300GHz which is within the RF range.<ref>[http://wifiinschools.org.uk/15.html RF vs Microwave Freq range], Microwaves and radio waves</ref> Some examples of weapons which have been publicized by the military are as follows:
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| * [[Active Denial System]] is a millimeter wave source that heats the water in the target's skin and thus causes incapacitating pain. It is being used by the [[Air Force Research Laboratory|U.S. Air Force Research Laboratory]] and [[Raytheon]] for riot-control duty. Though intended to cause severe pain while leaving no lasting damage, some concern has been voiced as to whether the system could cause irreversible damage to the eyes. There has yet to be testing for long-term side effects of exposure to the microwave beam. It can also destroy unshielded [[electronics]]: see [[TEMPEST]] (research into unintended electronic release of information).<ref>{{cite news | publisher = [[CBS News]] | date = 2008-06-01 | accessdate = 2009-03-30 | title = The Pentagon's Ray Gun | url = http://www.cbsnews.com/stories/2008/02/29/60minutes/main3891865.shtml }}</ref> The device comes in various sizes including attached to a [[humvee]].
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| * [[Vigilant Eagle]] is an airport defense system that directs high-frequency microwaves towards any projectile that is fired at an aircraft.<ref name=AZrep>
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| ''Raytheon focuses on non-lethal weapons,Andrew Johnson, (The Arizona Republic, 09-17-2009)</ref> The system consists of a missile–detecting and tracking subsystem (MDT), a command and control system, and a scanning array. The MDT is a fixed grid of passive infrared (IR) cameras. The command and control system determines the missile launch point. The scanning array projects microwaves that disrupt the surface-to-air missile's guidance system, deflecting it from the aircraft.<ref>[http://www.raytheon.com/capabilities/rtnwcm/groups/rms/documents/content/rtn_rms_ps_vigilanteagle_datas.pdf ]{{dead link|date=June 2012}}</ref>
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| * [[Bofors HPM Blackout]] is a high-powered microwave weapon system which is stated to be able to destroy at distance a wide variety of [[commercial off-the-shelf]] (COTS) electronic equipment. It is stated to be not lethal to humans.<ref>[http://www.baesystems.com/ProductsServices/BAE_GCSW_hpm_blackout.html ]{{dead link|date=June 2012}}</ref><ref>Magnus Karlsson (2009). "Bofors HPM Blackout". Artilleri-Tidskrift (2-2009): s. s 12-15. Retrieved 2010-01-04.</ref><ref>[http://www.google.co.uk/#hl=en&cp=19&gs_id=a&xhr=t&q=Bofors+HPM+Blackout&pf=p&sclient=psy-ab&site=&source=hp&pbx=1&oq=Bofors+HPM+Blackout&aq=0&aqi=g1&aql=&gs_sm=&gs_upl=&bav=on.2,or.r_gc.r_pw.,cf.osb&fp=d8c3d6158c86e07e&biw=1680&bih=916 Google search]</ref>
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| ===General information on lasers===
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| [[File:YAL-1A Airborne Laser unstowed crop.jpg|thumb|A [[USAF]] [[Boeing YAL-1]] airborne laser]]
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| Lasers are often used for sighting, ranging and targeting for guns; in these cases the laser beam is not the source of the weapon's firepower.
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| Laser weapons usually generate brief high-energy pulses. A one megajoule laser pulse delivers roughly the same energy as 200 grams of high explosive, and has the same basic effect on a target. The primary damage mechanism is mechanical shear, caused by reaction when the surface of the target is explosively evaporated.{{Citation needed|date=September 2008}}
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| Most existing weaponized lasers are [[gas dynamic laser]]s. Fuel, or a powerful [[turbine]], pushes the lasing media through a circuit or series of orifices. The high-pressures and heating cause the medium to form a plasma and lase. A major difficulty with these systems is preserving the high-precision mirrors and windows of the laser resonating cavity. Most systems use a low-powered "oscillator" laser to generate a coherent wave, and then amplify it. Some experimental laser amplifiers do not use windows or mirrors, but have open orifices, which cannot be destroyed by high energies.{{Citation needed|date=September 2008}}
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| Some lasers are used as [[non-lethal weapon]]s, such as [[Dazzler (weapon)|dazzler]]s which are designed to temporarily blind or distract people or sensors.
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| === Electrolaser ===
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| {{Main|Electrolaser}}
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| An electrolaser lets [[blooming (directed-energy weapon)|blooming]] occur, and then sends a powerful electric current down the conducting [[ionization|ionized]] track of plasma so formed, somewhat like [[lightning]]. It functions as a giant high energy long-distance version of the [[Taser]] or [[Electroshock weapon|stun gun]].
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| === Ion Weapons===
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| * HZE Ion Gun - A type of [[cosmic ray]] gun that emits invisible high energy heavy ions ([[HZE]]) capable of causing damage to the [[Central nervous system]].
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| === Pulsed Energy Projectile ===
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| {{Main|Pulsed Energy Projectile}}
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| Pulsed Energy Projectile or PEP systems emit an infrared laser pulse which creates rapidly expanding [[plasma (physics)|plasma]] at the target. The resulting sound, shock and electromagnetic waves stun the target and cause pain and temporary paralysis. The weapon is under development and is intended as a non-lethal weapon in crowd control.
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| ===Examples===
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| *On 1984 the Soviet [[Strategic Missile Troops]] military academy developed the first [[Soviet laser pistol|handheld laser weapon]], intended for use by cosmonauts in outer space.
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| * Made by [[Northrop Grumman]]:
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| ** On March 18, 2009 Northrop Grumman announced that its engineers in [[Redondo Beach, California|Redondo Beach]] had successfully built and tested an electric laser capable of producing a 100-kilowatt ray of light, powerful enough to destroy cruise missiles, artillery, rockets and mortar rounds.<ref>Joint High Power Solid-State Laser fact sheet, Northrop Grumman Corporation, April 22, 2008 [http://www.st.northropgrumman.com/media/SiteFiles/mediagallery/factsheet/JHPSSL.pdf]</ref> An electric laser is theoretically capable, according to Brian Strickland, manager for the [[United States Army]]'s Joint High Power Solid State Laser program, of being mounted in an aircraft, ship, or vehicle because it requires much less space for its supporting equipment than a chemical laser.<ref>Pae, Peter, "Northrop Advance Brings Era Of The Laser Gun Closer", ''[[Los Angeles Times]]'', March 19, 2009., p. B2.</ref>
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| ** On April 6, 2011, the U.S. Navy successfully tested a laser gun, manufactured by Northrop Grumman, that was mounted on the former [[USS Paul F. Foster (DD-964)|USS Paul Foster]], which is currently used as the navy's test ship. When engaged during the test that occurred off the coast of Central California in the Pacific Ocean test range, the laser gun was documented as having "a destructive effect on a high-speed cruising target," said Chief of Naval Research Admiral Nevin Carr.<ref>{{cite web|author=Northrop Grumman |url=http://www.foxnews.com/scitech/2011/04/08/navy-showboats-destructive-new-laser-gun/?test=faces |title=Navy Shows Off Powerful New Laser Weapon. |publisher=Foxnews.com |date=2010-04-07 |accessdate=2011-09-25}}</ref> While classified, the proposed range of the laser gun is measured in miles, not yards.
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| ** Northrop Grumman has announced the availability of a high-energy [[solid-state laser]] weapon system that they call [[FIRESTRIKE]], introduced on 13 November 2008. The system is modular, using 15 kW modules that can be combined to provide various levels of power.
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| * On 19 July 2010 an anti-aircraft [[laser]] described as the Laser [[Close-In Weapon System]] was unveiled at the [[Farnborough Airshow]].<ref>{{cite web|last=Emery |first=Daniel |url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/technology-10682693 |title=BBC News - Anti-aircraft laser unveiled at Farnborough Airshow |publisher=Bbc.co.uk |date=2010-07-19 |accessdate=2011-09-25}}</ref>
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| * The [[Zeus laser weapon]] is the first laser and the first energy weapon of any type to be used on a battlefield. It is used for neutralizing mines and unexploded ordnance.
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| * [[High Energy Liquid Laser Area Defense System|Laser Area Defense System]].
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| * The Mid-Infrared Advanced Chemical Laser ([[MIRACL]]) is an experimental [[United States Navy|U.S. Navy]] [[Hydrogen fluoride laser|deuterium fluoride laser]] and was tested against an [[United States Air Force|Air Force]] [[satellite]] in 1997.
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| * In 2011, the [[U.S. Navy]] began to test the Maritime Laser Demonstrator (MLD), a laser for use aboard its warships.<ref>[http://www.onr.navy.mil/en/Media-Center/Press-Releases/2011/Maritime-Laser-MLD-Test.aspx MLD Test Moves Navy a Step Closer to Lasers for Ship Self-Defense], official press release, 4/8/11.</ref><ref>[http://latimesblogs.latimes.com/technology/2011/04/navy-laser-weapon-fire-.html Navy tests laser gun by zapping motorboat off California coast], LA Times, 4/11/11.</ref>
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| * In 2013 the U.S. began field testing a directed-energy weapon it calls the [[Laser Weapon System]].<ref>{{cite news |title=Navy's New Laser Weapon Blasts Bad Guys From Air, Sea|author=Luis Martinez|url=http://news.yahoo.com/navys-laser-weapon-blasts-bad-215808231.html|newspaper=[[American Broadcasting Company|ABC]]|date=09 APR 2013|accessdate=9 April 2013}}</ref>
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| * Personnel Halting and Stimulation Response, or [[PHaSR]], is a non-lethal hand-held weapon developed by the [[United States Air Force]]<ref name='usafphasr'>[http://archive.is/20120721195102/http://www.af.mil/news/story.asp?storyID=123012699 Air Force Link] News story on the PHaSR handheld rifle-style weapon. 2 November 2005.</ref> Its purpose is to "dazzle" or stun a target. It was developed by Air Force's [[Directed Energy Directorate]].
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| * [[Tactical High Energy Laser]] (THEL) is a weaponized deuterium fluoride laser developed in a joint research project by [[Israel]] and the [[United States|U.S]]. It is designed to shoot down aircraft and missiles. See also [[National missile defense]].
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| * Soviet/Russian [[Beriev A-60]]: a [[Carbon dioxide laser|CO<sub>2</sub>]] [[gas laser]] mounted on an [[Ilyushin Il-76MD]] transport.
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| * The U.S. Air Force's [[Boeing YAL-1|Airborne Laser]], or [[Advanced Tactical Laser]], was a plan to mount a [[carbon dioxide laser|CO2]] [[gas laser]] or [[Chemical oxygen iodine laser|COIL]] [[chemical laser]] on a modified [[Boeing 747]] to shoot down [[missile]]s.<ref>
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| [http://www.wired.com/news/technology/0,1282,64437,00.html?tw=newsletter_topstories_html Wired News article "Weapons Freeze, Microwave Enemies"] (and copied in at least 661 other web pages including [http://www.foxnews.com/story/0,2933,127763,00.html this link]{{Dead link|date=December 2008}})</ref><ref>[http://www.militarypictures.info/airplanes/boeing_abl.jpg.html Boeing YAL-1 Airborne Laser (ABL) | Photos and Pictures<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref>
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| * [[High Energy Laser-Mobile Demonstrator]] (HEL-MD) is a [[Boeing]] designed laser system mounted on a [[Heavy Expanded Mobility Tactical Truck]]. Its current power level is 10kW, which will be boosted to 50kW, and expected to eventually be upgraded to 100kW. Targets that can be engaged are mortar rounds, artillery shells and rockets, [[unmanned aerial vehicle]]s, and cruise missiles.<ref>[http://www.laserfocusworld.com/articles/2013/12/u-s-army-s-vehicle-mounted-high-energy-laser-mobile-demonstrator-shoots-down-uavs-mortar-rounds.html U.S. Army's vehicle-mounted High Energy Laser Mobile Demonstrator shoots down UAVs, mortar rounds] - Laserfocusworld.com, 13 December 2013</ref>
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| * [[Portable Efficient Laser Testbed]] (PELT)<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.milnet.com/pentagon/new-weap/New-weap-q4-08.htm |title=The Leading Mil Net Site on the Net |publisher=milnet.com |date= |accessdate=2012-06-12}}</ref>
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| * [[Laser AirCraft CounterMeasures]] (ACCM)
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| *''See also [[Electrolaser#Examples of electrolasers]].''
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| ==Problems and ethical considerations==
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| Existing methods of storing, conducting, transforming, and directing energy are inadequate to produce a convenient hand-held weapon. Existing lasers waste much energy as heat, requiring still-bulky cooling equipment to avoid overheating damage. Air cooling can yield an unacceptable delay between shots. These problems, which severely limit laser weapon practicality at present, might be offset by:
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| * Cheap, high-temperature [[superconductivity|superconductors]] to make the weapon more efficient.
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| * More convenient high-volume electricity storage/generation. Part of the energy could be used to cool the device.
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| [[Chemical laser]]s use energy from a suitable [[chemical reaction]] instead of electricity. [[Chemical oxygen iodine laser]] ([[hydrogen peroxide]] with [[iodine]]) and [[Hydrogen fluoride laser|deuterium fluoride laser]] (atomic [[fluorine]] reacting with [[deuterium]]) are two laser types capable of megawatt-range continuous beam output. Managing chemical fuel presents its own problems, and issues with cooling and overall inefficiency remain.
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| These problems could be lessened if the weapon were mounted either at a defensive position near a power plant, or on board a large, possibly [[nuclear propulsion|nuclear powered]], water-going ship, as it would have the advantage of plentiful water for cooling.
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| === Blooming ===
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| Laser beams begin to cause [[Plasma (physics)|plasma]] breakdown in the atmosphere at energy densities of around one [[Joule|megajoule]] per cubic centimetre. This effect, called "blooming," causes the laser to defocus and disperse energy into the surrounding air. Blooming can be more severe if there is [[fog]], [[smoke]], or [[dust]] in the air.
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| Techniques that may reduce these effects include:
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| * Spreading the beam across a large, curved mirror that focuses the power on the target, to keep energy density en route too low for blooming to happen. This requires a large, very precise, fragile mirror, mounted somewhat like a searchlight, requiring bulky machinery to slew the mirror to aim the laser.
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| * Using a [[phased array]]. For typical laser [[wavelength]]s, this method would require billions of [[micrometre]]-size [[antenna (radio)|antennae]]. There is currently no known way to implement these, though [[carbon nanotube]]s have been proposed. Phased arrays could theoretically also perform [[Nonlinear optics|phase-conjugate amplification]] (see below). Phased arrays do not require mirrors or lenses, and can be made flat and thus do not require a turret-like system (as in "spread beam") to be aimed, though range will suffer at extreme angles (that is, the angle the beam forms to the surface of the phased array).<ref>[http://projectrho.com/rocket/rocket3x.html#laser Atomic Rocket: Space War: Weapons<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref>
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| * Using a phase-conjugate laser system. This method employs a "finder" or "guide" laser illuminating the target. Any mirror-like ("specular") points on the target reflect light that is sensed by the weapon's primary amplifier. The weapon then amplifies inverted waves in a positive feedback loop, destroying the target with [[shock wave|shockwaves]] as the specular regions evaporate. This avoids blooming because the waves from the target pass through the blooming, and therefore show the most conductive optical path; this automatically corrects for the distortions caused by blooming. Experimental systems using this method usually use special chemicals to form a "[[phase-conjugate mirror]]". In most systems, the mirror overheats dramatically at weapon-useful power levels.
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| * Using a very short pulse that finishes before blooming interferes.
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| * Focusing multiple lasers of relatively low power on a single target.
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| === Evaporated target material ===
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| Another problem with weaponized lasers is that the evaporated material from the target's surface begins to shade the beam. There are several approaches to this problem:
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| * Inducing a standing shockwave in the [[ablation]] cloud. The [[shock wave|shockwave]] then continues to inflict damage.
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| * Scanning the target faster than the shockwave propagates.
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| * Inducing plasmic optical mixing at the target by modulating the transparency of the target's ablation cloud to one laser by another laser, perhaps by tuning the laser to the absorption spectra of the ablation cloud, and inducing [[population inversion]] in the cloud. The other laser then induces local lasing in the ablation cloud. The [[beat frequency]] that results can induce frequencies that penetrate the ablation cloud.
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| === Beam absorption ===
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| A laser beam or particle beam passing through air can be absorbed or scattered by rain, snow, dust, fog, smoke, or similar visual obstructions that a bullet would easily penetrate. This effect adds to blooming problems and makes the dissipation of energy into the atmosphere worse.
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| The wasted energy can disrupt cloud development since the impact wave creates a "tunneling effect". Engineers from [[Massachusetts Institute of Technology|MIT]] and the [[United States Army|U.S. Army]] are looking into using this effect for [[Precipitation (meteorology)|precipitation]] management.
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| === Lack of indirect fire capabilities ===
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| [[Indirect fire]], as used in artillery warfare, can reach a target behind a hill, but is not feasible with line-of-sight DEWs. Possible alternatives are to mount the lasers (or perhaps just reflectors) on airborne or space-based platforms.
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| ==Masers==
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| {{Main|Maser}}
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| [[File:Hydrogen maser.gif|thumb|right|200px|A hydrogen radio frequency discharge, the first element inside a [[#Hydrogen maser|hydrogen maser]].]]
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| A '''maser''' is a device that produces [[coherence (physics)|coherent]] [[electromagnetic waves]] through amplification by [[stimulated emission]]. Historically, "maser" derives from the original, upper-case acronym '''MASER''', which stands for "[[microwave|'''M'''icrowave]] [[optical amplification|'''A'''mplification]] by [[Stimulated Emission|'''S'''timulated '''E'''mission]] of [[Radiation|'''R'''adiation]]". The lower-case usage arose from technological development having rendered the original denotation imprecise, because contemporary masers emit EM waves ([[microwave]] and [[radio]] frequencies) across a broader band of the [[electromagnetic spectrum]]; thus, the [[physics|physicist]] [[Charles H. Townes]]'s suggested usage of "'''m'''olecular" replacing "microwave", for contemporary linguistic accuracy.<ref name="autogenerated1">[http://nobelprize.org/physics/laureates/1964/townes-lecture.pdf Charles H. Townes – Nobel Lecture<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref> In 1957, when the optical coherent oscillator was first developed, it was denominated ''optical maser'', but usually called [[laser]] (Light Amplification by Stimulated Emission of Radiation), the acronym [[Gordon Gould]] established in 1957.
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| ===Some common types of masers===
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| *Atomic beam masers
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| **Ammonia maser
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| **Free electron maser
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| **[[Hydrogen maser]]
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| *Gas masers
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| **Rubidium maser
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| *Solid state masers
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| **Ruby maser
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| **[[Whispering-gallery wave|Whispering-gallery modes]] iron-sapphire maser
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| <!-- Unclear -->The dual [[noble gas]] of a masing medium which is [[nonpolar]].<ref>[http://cfa-www.harvard.edu/Walsworth/Activities/DNGM/old-DNGM.html The Dual Noble Gas Maser], Harvard University, Department of Physics</ref>
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| == Particle-beam weapons ==
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| {{Main|Particle-beam weapon}}
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| Particle-beam weapons can use charged or neutral particles, and can be either endoatmospheric or exoatmospheric. [[Particle beam]]s as beam weapons are theoretically possible, but practical weapons have not been demonstrated. Certain types of particle beams have the advantage of being self-focusing in the atmosphere.
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| [[Blooming (directed-energy weapon)|Blooming]] is also a problem in particle-beam weapons. Energy that would otherwise be focused on the target spreads out; the beam becomes less effective:
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| * Thermal blooming occurs in both charged and neutral particle beams, and occurs when particles bump into one another under the effects of thermal vibration, or bump into air molecules.
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| * Electrical blooming occurs only in charged particle beams, as ions of like charge repel one another.
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| === Plasma weapons ===
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| {{Main|Plasma weapon}}
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| Plasma weapons fire a beam, bolt, or [[particle beam|stream]] of [[plasma (physics)|plasma]], which is an excited [[state of matter]] consisting of atomic electrons & nuclei and free electrons if [[ionization|ionized]], or other particles if [[pinch (plasma physics)|pinched]].
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| The [[MARAUDER]] (''Magnetically Accelerated Ring to Achieve Ultra-high Directed-Energy and Radiation'') used the [[Shiva Star]] project (a high energy capacitor bank which provided the means to test weapons and other devices requiring brief and extremely large amounts of energy) to accelerate a toroid of plasma at a significant percentage of the speed of light.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.osti.gov/energycitations/product.biblio.jsp?osti_id=7369133 |title=Energy Citations Database (ECD) - - Document #7369133 |doi=10.1063/1.860681 |publisher=Osti.gov |date= |accessdate=2012-06-12}}</ref>
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| === Electric beam in a vacuum ===
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| In a [[vacuum]] (e.g., in [[space]]), an electric discharge can travel a potentially unlimited distance at a velocity slightly slower than the speed of light. This is because there is no significant electric resistance to the flow of electric current in a vacuum. This would make such devices useful to destroy the [[electricity|electrical]] and [[electronics|electronic]] parts of [[satellite]]s and [[spacecraft]]. However, in a vacuum the electric current cannot ride a laser beam, and some other means must be used to keep the electron beam on track and to prevent it from dispersing: see [[particle beam]].
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| === Speed of the weapon ===
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| The speed of the energy weapon is determined by the density of the beam. If it is very dense then it is very powerful, but a particle beam moves much slower than the [[speed of light]]. Its speed is determined by mass, power, density, or particle/energy density.
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| == Sonic weapons ==
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| {{Main|Sonic weaponry}}
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| Cavitation, which affects gas nuclei in human tissue, and heating can result from exposure to ultrasound and can damage tissue and organs. Studies have found{{Citation needed|date=August 2010}} that exposure to high intensity ultrasound at frequencies from 700 kHz to 3.6 MHz can cause lung and intestinal damage in mice. Heart rate patterns following vibroacoustic stimulation have resulted in serious arterial flutter and [[bradycardia]]. Researchers have concluded that generating pain through the auditory system using high intensity sound risked permanent hearing damage.
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| A multi-organization research program<ref>
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| [[Naval Submarine Medical Research Laboratory]] ([[Groton, Connecticut]]),
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| [[Navy Experimental Diving Unit]] ([[Panama City, Florida]]),
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| SCC San Diego,
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| Navy Medical Research and Development Command ([[Bethesda, Maryland]]),
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| Underwater Sound Reference Detachment of Naval Undersea Warfare Center ([[Orlando, Florida]]),
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| Applied Research Laboratories: [[University of Texas at Austin]],
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| Applied Physics Laboratory: [[University of Washington]],
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| Institute for Sensory Research: [[Syracuse University]],
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| [[Georgia Institute of Technology]],
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| [[Emory University]],
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| [[Boston University]],
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| [[The University of Vermont]],
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| [[Applied Physics Laboratory]],
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| [[Johns Hopkins University]],
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| [[Jet Propulsion Laboratory]],
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| [[University of Rochester]],
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| [[University of Minnesota]],
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| [[University of Illinois system]],
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| [[Loyola University Chicago|Loyola University]],
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| [[State University of New York]] at [[Buffalo, New York]]
| |
| </ref> involved high intensity audible sound experiments on human subjects. Extra-aural (unrelated to hearing) bioeffects on various internal organs and the central nervous system included auditory shifts, [[vibrotactile]] sensitivity change, muscle contraction, [[cardiovascular]] function change, [[central nervous system]] effects, [[vestibular]] ([[inner ear]]) effects, and [[chest wall]]/lung tissue effects. Researchers found that low frequency sonar exposure could result in significant [[cavitation]]s, [[hypothermia]], and tissue shearing. Follow-on experiments were not recommended.
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| Tests performed on mice show the threshold for both lung and liver damage occurs at about 184 [[Decibel|dB]]. Damage increases rapidly as intensity is increased. Noise-induced [[neurological]] disturbances in humans exposed to continuous low frequency tones for durations longer than 15 minutes involved development of immediate and long-term problems affecting brain tissue. The symptoms resembled those of individuals who had suffered minor head injuries. One theory for a causal mechanism is that the prolonged sound exposure resulted in enough mechanical strain to brain tissue to induce an [[encephalopathy]].<ref>
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| "Non-Lethal Swimmer Neutralization Study"; Applied Research Laboratories; The University of Texas at Austin; G2 Software Systems, Inc., San Diego; TECHNICAL DOCUMENT 3138; May 2002 [http://webcache.googleusercontent.com/unclesam?q=cache:s2NL05udytgJ:www.spawar.navy.mil/sti/publications/pubs/td/3138/td3138cond.pdf+electromagnetic+weapons+affect+heart+rhythm&hl=en&ct=clnk&cd=5&gl=us Non-Lethal Swimmer Neutralization Study]</ref>
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| == History ==
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| === Ancient inventors ===
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| According to [[legend]], the concept of the "burning mirror" or ''death ray'' began with [[Archimedes]] who created a mirror with an adjustable focal length (or more likely, a series of mirrors focused on a common point) to focus sunlight on ships of the [[Ancient Rome|Roman]] fleet as they invaded [[Syracuse, Sicily|Syracuse]], setting them on fire. Historians point out that the earliest accounts of the battle did not mention a "burning mirror", but merely stated that Archimedes's ingenuity combined with a way to hurl fire were relevant to the victory. Some attempts to replicate this feat have had some success; in particular, an experiment by students at [[Massachusetts Institute of Technology|MIT]] showed that a mirror-based weapon was at least possible, if not necessarily practical.<ref>[http://web.mit.edu/2.009/www/lectures/10_ArchimedesResult.html Archimedes Death Ray: Idea Feasibility Testing]</ref>
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| === Robert Watson-Watt ===
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| In 1935, the British [[Air Ministry]] asked [[Robert Watson-Watt]] of the [[Radio Research Station]] whether a "[[raygun|death ray]]" was possible. He and colleague [[Arnold Wilkins]] quickly concluded that it was not feasible, but as a consequence suggested using radio for the detection of aircraft and this started the development of [[radar]] in Britain. See: [[History of radar#Robert Watson-Watt]].
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| === Engine-stopping rays, urban legend made real ===
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| Engine-stopping rays are a variant that occurs in fiction and myth. Such stories were circulating in Britain around 1938. The tales varied but in general terms told of tourists whose car engine suddenly died and were then approached by a German soldier who told them that they had to wait. The soldier returned a short time later to say that the engine would now work and the tourists drove off. A possible origin of some of these stories arises from the testing of the television transmitter in [[Feldberg, Baden-Württemberg|Feldberg]], Germany. Because electrical noise from car engines would interfere with field strength measurements, sentries would stop all traffic in the vicinity for the twenty minutes or so needed for a test. A distorted retelling of the events might give rise to the idea that a transmission killed the engine.<ref>{{cite book |last=Jones |first=R.V. |authorlink=Reginald Victor Jones. |title=Most Secret War: British Scientific Intelligence 1939–1945 |year=1978 |publisher=Coronet |isbn=0-340-24169-1 |pages=84,124}}</ref>
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| Modern automobile engines are not mechanically but electronically controlled. Disabling the electronics can indeed stop the engine. This has been implemented in [[OnStar]], which has a remote control feature, but this is not a weapon. It is an add-on to the electronics of the car. Because a car is operating on a closed system, it would be impossible to use an electronic means of disengaging an engine, short of electrocuting it via laser or pulse weaponry. See also [[electromagnetic pulse]] (EMP), which is known for its engine-stopping effect, but is an undirected-energy weapon.
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| === Tesla ===
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| [[Nikola Tesla]] (1856–1943), a noted inventor, scientist and electrical engineer, developed early high frequency technologies. Tesla worked on plans for a directed-energy weapon from the early 1900s until his death. In 1937, Tesla composed a treatise entitled ''The Art of Projecting Concentrated Non-dispersive Energy through the Natural Media'' concerning charged particle beams.<ref>
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| Seifer, Marc J., ''Wizard, the Life and Times of Nikola Tesla''. ISBN (HC) pg. 454.</ref>
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| === German World War II experimental weapons ===
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| During the early 1940s [[Axis Powers|Axis]] engineers developed a [[sonic cannon]] that could literally shake a person apart from the inside. A [[methane gas]] [[combustion chamber]] leading to two [[parabolic dish]]es pulse-detonated at roughly 44 [[Hertz|Hz]]. This [[infrasound]], magnified by the dish reflectors, caused [[vertigo]] and [[nausea]] at {{convert|200|-|400|m|yd}} by vibrating the [[middle ear]] bones and shaking the [[Cochlea|cochlear fluid]] within the [[inner ear]]. At distances of {{convert|50|-|200|m|ft}}, the [[sound wave]]s could act on organ tissues and fluids by repeatedly compressing and releasing compressive resistant organs such as the [[kidney]]s, [[spleen]], and [[liver]]. (It had little detectable effect on malleable organs such as the [[heart]], [[stomach]] and [[intestine]]s.) [[Lung]] tissue was affected at only the closest ranges as [[Atmosphere|atmospheric air]] is highly compensable and only the blood rich [[alveoli]] resist compression. In practice, the [[weapon system]] was highly vulnerable to enemy fire. [[Rifle]], [[bazooka]] and [[Mortar (weapon)|mortar]] rounds easily deformed the parabolic reflectors, rendering the wave amplification ineffective.<ref>{{Cite episode |title=Weird Weapons: The Axis |series=Modern Marvels |serieslink=Modern Marvels |network=The History Channel |credits=Martin O'Collins, director |date=21 February 2006 |season=12 |number=8 |language=English}}</ref>
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| In the later phases of [[World War II]], [[Nazi Germany]] increasingly put its hopes on research into technologically revolutionary [[secret weapon]]s, the ''[[Wunderwaffe]]n''.
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| Among the directed-energy weapons the Nazis investigated were [[X-ray]] beam weapons developed under Heinz Schmellenmeier, Richard Gans and Fritz Houtermans. They built an electron accelerator called Rheotron (invented by [[Max Steenbeck]] at [[Siemens-Schuckert]] in the 1930s, these were later called [[Betatron]]s by the Americans) to generate hard X-ray [[synchrotron]] beams for the Reichsluftfahrtministerium (RLM). The intent was to pre-ionize ignition in Aircraft engines and hence serve as anti-aircraft DEW and bring planes down into the reach of the FLAK. The Rheotron was captured by the Americans in Burggrub on April 14, 1945.
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| Another approach was Ernst Schiebolds 'Röntgenkanone' developed from 1943 in Großostheim near [[Aschaffenburg]]. The Company Richert Seifert & Co from Hamburg delivered parts.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.main-netz.de/nachrichten/region/aschaffenburg/aschaffenburg-land/land/art3986,883119 |title=Forschungsstätte für Hitlers "Todesstrahlen" |publisher=Main-netz.de |date=2009-08-19 |accessdate=2012-06-12}}</ref>
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| The Third Reich further developed [[sonic weaponry]], using parabolic reflectors to project sound waves of destructive force. Microwave weapons were investigated together with the Japanese.
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| === Strategic Defense Initiative ===
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| In the 1980s, [[President of the United States|U.S. President]] [[Ronald Reagan]] proposed the [[Strategic Defense Initiative]] (SDI) program, which was nicknamed ''[[Star Wars]]''. It suggested that lasers, perhaps space-based [[X-ray laser]]s, could destroy [[Intercontinental ballistic missile|ICBMs]] in flight. Panel discussions on the role of high-power lasers in SDI took place at various laser conferences, during the 1980s, with the participation of noted physicists including [[Edward Teller]].<ref>Wang, C. P. (Ed.), ''Proceedings of the International Conference on Lasers '85'' (STS, McLean, Va, 1986).</ref><ref>[[F. J. Duarte|Duarte, F. J.]] (Ed.), [[The International Conference on Lasers and Applications, Lasers 'XX|''Proceedings of the International Conference on Lasers '87'' (STS, McLean, Va, 1988)]].</ref>
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| Though the strategic missile defense concept has continued to the present under the [[Missile Defense Agency]], most of the directed-energy weapon concepts were shelved. However, Boeing has been somewhat successful with the [[Boeing YAL-1]] and [[Boeing NC-135]], the first of which destroyed two missiles in February 2010. Funding has been cut to both of the programs.
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| === Iraq War ===
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| During the [[Iraq War]], electromagnetic weapons, including high power microwaves were used by the U.S. military to disrupt and destroy the Iraqi electronic systems and may have been used for crowd control. Types and magnitudes of exposure to electromagnetic fields are unknown.<ref>
| |
| U.S. Senate - Committee on Veterans Affairs: Hearings - Gulf War Illnesses; Testimony to the Senate Veterans Affairs Committee; Meryl Nass, MD, Director of Pulmonary Rehabilitation, Mount Desert Island Hospital Bar Harbor, Maine; September 25, 2007 [http://web.archive.org/web/20071103025251/http://www.senate.gov/~veterans/public/index.cfm?pageid=16&release_id=11326&sub_release_id=11373&view=all]</ref>
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| ===Alleged tracking of Space Shuttle ''Challenger''===
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| The Soviets invested some effort in the development of [[ruby laser|ruby]] and [[carbon dioxide laser]]s as anti-ballistic missile systems, and later as a tracking and anti-satellite system. There are reports that the [[Terra-3]] complex at [[Sary Shagan]] was used on several occasions to temporarily "blind" US spy satellites in the IR range.
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| It has been claimed that Russia made use of the lasers at the Terra-3 site to target the Space Shuttle ''[[Space Shuttle Challenger|Challenger]]'' in 1984. At the time, the Soviets were concerned that the shuttle was being used as a reconnaissance platform. On 10 October 1984 ([[STS-41-G]]), the Terra-3 tracking laser was allegedly aimed at ''Challenger'' as it passed over the facility. Early reports claimed that this was responsible for causing "malfunctions on the space shuttle and distress to the crew." The United States filed a diplomatic protest about the incident.<ref>{{cite web|last=Kononenko|first=Boris|title=Silent Space Is Being Monitored|url=http://www.fas.org/news/russia/1996/druma189_s96005.htm|accessdate=21 July 2011}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|last=Zaloga|first=Steven|title=RED STAR WARS|url=http://www.oook.info/dyson/sdi.html|accessdate=21 July 2011}}</ref> However, this story is comprehensively denied by the crew members of STS-41-G and knowledgeable members of the US intelligence community.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.astronautix.com/flights/sts41g.htm |title=STS-41-G |publisher=Astronautix.com |date= |accessdate=2012-06-12}}</ref>
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| ===Law enforcement===
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| [[Dazzler (weapon)|Dazzler]]s are devices used for temporarily blinding or stunning an attacker, or to stop a driver in a moving vehicle. Targets can also include mechanical sensors or aircraft. Dazzlers emit [[infrared]] or invisible light against various electronic sensors, and visible light against humans, when they are intended to cause no long-term damage to [[eye]]s. The emitters are usually [[laser]]s, making what is termed a ''laser dazzler''. Most of the contemporary systems are man-portable, and operate in either the red (a [[laser diode]]) or green (a [[diode-pumped solid-state laser]], DPSS) areas of the [[electromagnetic spectrum]].
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| == Future ==
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| Currently, the technology is being considered for non-military use to protect Earth from [[asteroid]]s.<ref name=Villamarin>[http://au.ibtimes.com/articles/438042/20130222/end-world-2013-de-star-project-proposed.htm#.USxCOaVdX8s "End of the World 2013: DE-STAR Project Proposed after Asteroid 2012 DA14 Flyby, Russian Meteor Blast"], ''International Business Times'', Feb. 22, 2013</ref>
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| == Non-lethal weapons ==
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| {{Main|Non-lethal weapons}}
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| The TECOM Technology Symposium in 1997 concluded on non-lethal weapons, "determining the target effects on personnel is the greatest challenge to the testing community", primarily because "the potential of injury and death severely limits human tests".<ref>
| |
| Human Effects Advisory Panel Program; presented to: NDIANon-Lethal Defense IV [http://web.archive.org/web/20041114161030/http://www.dtic.mil/ndia/nld4/kenny.pdf]</ref>
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| Also, "directed energy weapons that target the central nervous system and cause neurophysiological disorders may violate the Certain Conventional Weapons Convention of 1980. Weapons that go beyond non-lethal intentions and cause "superfluous injury or unnecessary suffering" may also violate the Protocol I to the Geneva Conventions of 1977."<ref>
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| Non-Lethal Weaponry: From Tactical to Strategic Applications; Colonel Dennis B. Herbert, USMC (Ret.), program developer, Institute for Non-Lethal Defense Technologies at Pennsylvania State University; pg. 4 [http://web.archive.org/web/20031223201043/http://www.dtic.mil/doctrine/jel/jfq_pubs/1621.pdf]</ref>
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| Some common bio-effects of non-lethal electromagnetic weapons include:
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| * Difficulty breathing
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| * [[Orientation (mental)|Disorientation]]
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| * [[Nausea]]
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| * [[Pain]]
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| * [[Vertigo (medical)|Vertigo]]
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| * Other systemic discomfort.
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| Interference with breathing poses the most significant, potentially lethal results.
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| Light and repetitive visual signals can induce [[epilepsy|epileptic]] seizures. [[Sensory illusions in aviation|Vection]] and [[motion sickness]] can also occur.
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| [[Cruise ship]]s are known to use sonic weapons (such as [[LRAD]]) to drive off [[pirate]]s.<ref>{{cite news| url=http://www.guardian.co.uk/travel/2005/nov/06/travelnews.uknews.theobserver | location=London | work=The Guardian | title=Pirates shoot at Britons' cruise liner | first=David | last=Smith | date=November 22, 2006}}</ref>
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| == See also ==
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| * [[Active Denial System]] (ADS), a non-lethal directed-energy weapon developed by the U.S. military, for area denial, perimeter security and crowd control
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| * [[Electronic warfare]]
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| * [[Electromagnetic weapon]]
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| * [[German WW 2 Sonic Cannon]]
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| * [[Laser applications]]
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| * [[List of laser articles]]
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| * [[List of plasma (physics) applications articles]]
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| == Notes ==
| |
| {{Reflist|30em}}
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| == References ==
| |
| {{Refbegin}}
| |
| * ''The E-Bomb: How America's New Directed Energy Weapons Will Change the Way Future Wars Will Be Fought''. Doug Beason (2005). ISBN 0-306-81402-1
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| * [http://www.janes.com/defence/air_forces/news/jdw/jdw061016_1_n.shtml US claims that China has used high-energy lasers to interfere with US satellites: Jane's Defence]
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| * [http://www.usatoday.com/tech/news/2006-10-05-satellite-laser_x.htm China jamming test sparks U.S. satellite concerns: USA Today]
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| * [http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/main.jhtml?xml=/news/2006/09/26/wchina226.xml Beijing secretly fires lasers to disable US satellites: The Telegraph]
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| * [http://www.defensenews.com/story.php?F=2121111&C=america China Attempted To Blind U.S. Satellites With Laser: Defense News]
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| * [http://www.upi.com/SecurityTerrorism/view.php?StoryID=20061025-120611-1464r China Has Not Attacked US Satellites Says DoD: United Press International]
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| * [http://www.spacedaily.com/reports/China_Has_Not_Attacked_US_Satellites_Says_DoD_999.html SpaceWar]
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| * {{cite web | url=http://www.washingtontimes.com/news/2011/jul/21/beijing-develops-radiation-weapons/ | title=Report: China building electromagnetic pulse weapons for use against U.S. carriers | publisher=[http://www.washingtontimes.com ''The Washington Times''] | date=July 21, 2011 | accessdate=April 29, 2012 | author=Gertz, Bill}}
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| * {{cite web | url=http://www.wired.com/dangerroom/2008/10/army-ordering-p/ | title=Army Orders Pain Ray Trucks; New Report Shows 'Potential for Death' | publisher=[http://www.wired.com Wired Magazine] | date=October 10, 2008 | accessdate=April 29, 2012 | author=Hambling, David}}
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| * {{cite web | url=http://www.wired.com/dangerroom/2013/04/air-force-directed-energy/ | title=Air Force Wants New Energy Weapons to Cause Non-Lethal 'Bioeffects' | publisher=[http://www.wired.com Wired Magazine] | date=April 1, 2013 | accessdate=April 1, 2013 | author= Beckhusen, Robert}}
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| {{Refend}}
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| | |
| == External links ==
| |
| * [http://www.ausairpower.net/dew-ebomb.html Directed Energy Weapons @ Air Power Australia]
| |
| * [http://www.appliedenergetics.com/ Applied Energetics - Photonic and high-voltage energetics (formerly Ionatron)]
| |
| * [http://www.wired.com/news/technology/0,1282,68152,00.html?tw=wn_7techhead Wired News (AP) article on weapons deployment in Iraq, Active Denial System and Stunstrike], July 10, 2005
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| * [http://www.popularmechanics.com/technology/military_law/4231116.html Boeing Tests Laser-Mounted Humvee as IED Hunter], November 13, 2007
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| * [http://wstiac.alionscience.com/pdf/WSTV7N1.pdf WSTIAC Quarterly, Vol. 7, No. 1 - Directed Energy Weapons]
| |
| * [http://www.fas.org/news/russia/1995/tac95060.htm Ogonek Report on '21st Century Weapons']
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| * [http://defense.aol.com/2012/11/28/how-revolutionary-is-champ-new-air-force-microwave-weapon/ How 'Revolutionary' Is CHAMP, New Air Force Microwave Weapon?], November 28, 2012 By David Axe
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| * DARPA: Better Understanding of Human Brain Supports National Security [http://www.darpa.mil/NewsEvents/Releases/2013/04/02.aspx]
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| {{Emerging technologies}}
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| {{DEFAULTSORT:Directed-Energy Weapon}}
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| [[Category:Directed-energy weapons|*]]
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| [[Category:Science fiction weapons]]
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| [[Category:Energy weapons]]
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| [[Category:Non-lethal weapons]]
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| [[Category:Fictional weapons]]
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| [[Category:Physics in fiction]]
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| [[Category:Electromagnetic radiation]]
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